Preparing Students for College: Issues of Literacy
TESOL Energy Break Session (2004), Ann M. Johns (ajohns@cox.net)
Quick write: “What should be our language learning goals for college-bound
students?”
Our problem:
Every time students sit down to write, they have to invent the university
for the occasion—invent the university, that is, or a branch of
it, like history or economics, or anthropology or English. They have
to learn
to speak the language, to try on the particular ways of knowing, selecting,
evaluating, reporting, concluding, and arguing that define the discourse
of
that community (p. 134).
Some thoughts
about literacy curricula:
•
Introduction and practice for reading and writing in a variety of written
genres, not just the English class essay,
• Vocabulary activities, particularly those that relate to “mortar”
words,
• Activities that encourage genre analysis: research into the text
and the context of the genre, into genre conventions as well as situational
variation,
• Literacy critique: a recognition of genre hegemony and of ways
to negotiate genres with contexts,
• Exposure to a variety of non-textual genres: visual, literary,
scientific, musical---drawing from the students’ prior knowledge
as well as from academic and professional contexts,
• Introduction to grammar as functional, as serving purposes for
the writer in text,
• Assessment based upon student genre research skills and flexibility
as well as upon a variety of processes and written products.
Issues
of:
• Vocabulary
o Brick words
o Citation words
o Mortar words
• Expository reading
o Text arrangement
o Argumentation
o Reading for different purposes
• Academic writing (see figure)
• Research: See material on AMJ’s home page.
• Other academic tasks, e.g., speaking, making visuals, etc.
Undergraduate
Writing Tasks
Aims
Transactional: informative
Transactional: persuasive
Expressive
Exploratory
Poetic No. of Assignments
574
90
2
117
9 % of Total
73
11
.02
15
.05
Audiences
Teacher: Student to instructor (general)
Teacher: Student to examiner
Self
Peers
Informed audience
Novice audience
Generalized reader
112
542
25
50
37
13
8
14
69
3
6
5
2
1
Genres
Short answer exam
Journal
Term paper
Summary/annotation
Lab report
Abstract
Review
Essay exam
Feasibility report
Self-evaluation
Business memo
Business letter
Other
No recognizable genre
184
106
50
29
29
16
15
11
7
7
6
6
22
300
23
13
6
4
4
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
38
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
Identifying,
Defining and Selecting Words for Citation: ”Opinion Words”
To the
student: Your research requires that you cite sources (data) other than
yourself in order to answer your research questions. Each of the verbs
(and verb phrases) listed below can be used in citation; however, there
are considerable differences in meaning among these words.
1. In your groups (or as a homework assignment), divide this list into
two parts: the neutral verbs (those that you can use without revealing
your opinion of the source you’re citing) and the verbs that show
an opinion.
2. Then, take the “opinion verbs” and divide these into categories,
depending on word definitions, using a dictionary if necessary. Which
words refer directly to an author’s argument, for example? Which
refer to what the author does with the information s/he gathered? (e.g.,
She subdivides…) Do any words refer to the author him/herself?
3. You may have some words left. Use your dictionaries to define them
as well.
Word Neutral? Show opinions? Definition
Argue
Assert
Attempt to promote
Comment
Conceive of
Confirm
Contend
Correlate
Define
Differentiate
Discern
Discriminate
Document
Evoke
Insist
Maintain
Negate
Note
Point out
Remark
Say
Suggest
Summarize
(Add words)
4. Then,
using the sources you have selected for your research, write three sentences
that you can include in your final paper in which citations (and acknowledgement
verbs) appear.
This might be one of your citations:
Butler (1999, p. 12), however, minimizes the issue by telling
the reader that it was unimportant to people at the time.
As you read, and cite, from now on, consider the acknowledgement words
you use and what they mean.
References:
Adamson,
H.D. (1993). Academic competence: Theory and classroom practice/preparing
students for content classes. New York: Longman
[A good overview, particularly for those teaching pre-academic courses.]
Bridgeman,
B. & Carlson, S (1984). Survey of academic writing tasks. Written
Communication, 1, 247-280.
[This is a very large task survey, taken for ETS.]
Clarke,
M.A., B.K. Dobson, & S. Silberstein (1996). Choice readings.
Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
[A reading textbook that has stood the test of time. The first version
was published in 1973.]
Horowitz,
D.M. (1986). What professors actually require: Academic tasks for the
ESL
classroom. English for Specific Purposes, 5, 107-120.
[Still one of the best analyses of task types.]
Huckin, T.N. & L.A. Olsen (1991). Technical writing and professional
communication
for nonnative speakers of English. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[This very large volume has everything for the technical writer---and
help
for ESL students.]
Journal
of English for Academic Purposes. (Ken Hyland & Liz Hamp-Lyons,
eds.)
[An excellent journal, especially for those teaching university and
graduate
students. You can register on-line for a free alerting service from
www.elsevier.com/locate/contentsdirect.]
Language
and learning across the disciplines (on line): http://wac.colostate.edu.
[A first-rate, free, on-line source, sponsored by the Writing-across-the
Curriculum people.]
Lobban,
C.S. & M. Schefter (1992). Successful lab reports. New York: Cambridge
[Teaching a group of science students? This slim volume focusing upon
an important academic genre is very useful.]
Madden,
C.G. & T. N. Rohlck (1997). Discussion & interaction in the
academic
community. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
[What about university speaking demands upon ESL students? These authors
deal with visiting faculty during office hours, rapport and complaining,
colloquial challenges…]
McCarthy,
L. (1987). A stranger in strange lands: A college student writing across
the curriculum. Research in the teaching of English, 21, 233-264.
[This is a classic ethnography of one student’s efforts to grapple
with
academic writing.]
Melzer,
D. (2002). Assignments across the curriculum: A survey of college writing.
Language and learning across the disciplines, 6, 86-109.
[This author explored 787 writing assignments posted in syllabi on the
WEB.]
Sternglass,
M. (1997). Time to know them: A longitudinal study of writing and learning
at the college level. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
[Most ethnographies are short-term. Sternglass followed a group of diverse
students for four years. A landmark study.]
Swales,
J.M. & C.B. Feak (1994). Academic writing for graduate students:
A course for
nonnative speakers of English. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
[This volume is written for MA and Ph.D. students; however, since Swales
and Feak are some of the best curriculum writers in the business, we
can all
benefit from their activities and discussions.]
Wennerstrom,
A. (2003). Discourse analysis in the language classroom (Vol. 2, Genres
of writing). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
[A very good volume for teachers on how to introduce a variety of genre
to
the ESL language classroom.]