The following questions are provided as a basis for preparation for the final exam together with the questions on the quiz and the midterm. Some questions on the final exam may be taken directly from these questions. Other questions on the final will be slightly different from these questions in the sense of being more specific, or of incorporating material from two or more of the study questions. However, there will be nothing on the final which is not covered by the study questions and/or previous test questions with the possible exception of material presented during the last two weeks.
Nearly every question requests an "illustration." "Illustrate," as I use that term in exams, means give an example from actual life which seems to fit the general point being explained. It also means that the example must be presented in such a way that the connection to the major point is either obvious, or it is accompanied by a brief explanation making apparent the connection to the major point. Bear in mind that the point of the exam is to demonstrate to me your understanding of the course material. Simply repeating an example I have used in class to illustrate the same point you are illustrating in your answer does not necessarily show understanding. An example which you think of yourself can provide an excellent illustration of understanding. On the other hand, repeating an example already used in class, or in the readings, is better than a faulty original example, or no example at all. Also, in certain cases, all the good examples may already have been given. (For example, in the case of the first part of number 13.)
1. Briefly explain the major reasons for referring to certain types of ethical theories as deontological, or as consequentialist, or as virtue ethics. Illustrate with a brief account of an ethical theory of an individual philosopher for each major type of ethical theory. Briefly explain the major features of our "ordinary" idea of ethics which is stressed by each of these major types of ethical theories. Illustrate with suitable examples in each case. Explain "strengths" and "weaknesses" of each of these ideas or types of ethical theory, illustrating with suitable examples where appropriate.
2. In this course we have examined two major issues, or ethical questions, which moral philosophers have attempted to answer. The two major issues are: 1) How to distinguish ethically good from ethically bad behavior? and; 2) Why engage in ethically good behavior while avoiding ethically bad behavior? Briefly explain the general answers which each of the following philosophers has given to each of these questions. Plato; Aristotle; Aquinas; Hobbes; Hume; Kant; Mill; Nietzsche; Dewey. If you think one of these philosophers does not give an answer to one of these questions, you may briefly explain your reasons for saying that.
3. Briefly explain the Naturalistic Fallacy. Relate the naturalistic fallacy to Hume's point about the distinction between "is" and "ought." Illustrate with an example.
4. Briefly explain what a social institution is. Give some examples. Explain why social institutions are important to human life. Explain why the type of behavior required while one is performing a role in a social institution may be behavior which would be unethical if one were not performing the role in the institution. Illustrate with two examples.
5. In "Two Concepts of Rules" Rawls distinguishes between what he calls the summary conception of rules, and the practice conception of rules. Briefly explain the basis of this distinction, illustrating each case with a clear example. Explain the differences in the ethics of a situation in which one is using a summary rule, compared to the ethics of a situation covered by a practice rule.
6. Explain the difference between saying something is desired, and saying something is desirable. Give some examples of cases from everyday life in which this distinction would be regarded as very important. Use this distinction to explain why Dewey thinks it is important to use testing procedures to subject various publicly encouraged values to more careful public scrutiny. Distinguish between values manifest as desired social or personal goals, from values manifest as socially endorsed behavioral rules. Briefly explain how each might be tested, giving examples. Mention one or two examples of publicly encouraged values which you think should be subjected to a testing procedure, explaining, in each case, why you suspect the value may not be working as well as people believe it is.
7. Dewey thinks subjecting ethics to scientific examination could have at least three useful consequences concerning our attitudes toward ethics. Briefly explain each of these consequences; explain why Dewey thinks it could follow from a program of careful examination; and explain why Dewey thinks it would be important.
8. Explain Stevenson's distinction between disagreements of opinion and disagreements of attitude. Illustrate each with an example. Explain why disagreements of attitude may be influenced by, or based upon, disagreements of opinion. Illustrate. Relate this possibility (that a disagreement of attitude may be based upon a disagreement of opinion) to Dewey's point about the importance of scientific examination of ethical values.
9. Briefly explain Rawls "Veil of Ignorance." Explain the importance of this idea to the notion of fairness in our social institutions. Illustrate with at least three different examples.
10. Explain the difference which Gilligan draws between a justice orientation in ethics and a caring orientation. Briefly state and explain the Golden Rule. Which of Gilligan's conceptions of ethics would fit better with use of the Golden Rule? Explain your answer.
11. Explain why some ethical problems or conflicts would be more likely to be resolved by a justice orientation than by a caring orientation and others would be better handled by the caring perspective. Illustrate each with an example.
12. Explain why changes in living conditions may mean that ethical rules need to change. Illustrate with at least two examples. Briefly explain different ideas of ethical relativity. If changes in living conditions require changes in ethical rules, would one be saying ethical relativity is correct, or not? Explain.
13. Explain why one could say that certain ethical rules are essential to the existence of humans as a species. Illustrate with at least two examples. Explain that this requirement leaves out many ethical rules and/or orientations which we would now regard as important to ethics. Illustrate with at least two examples.
14. Explain Hume's basis for saying ethics is a function of the human capacity for sympathy. Illustrate. Enlarge upon Hume's point by explaining the further importance to ethics of the capacity for empathy.
15. Briefly explain what Hobbes means by the "State of Nature," and why Hobbes thinks this type of living condition would lead to a civilized society with ethics and laws. Distinguish the type of "social contract" deriving from Hobbes' state of nature from the notion of social contract used by Rawls.
16. Briefly explain the Divine Command idea of ethics. Explain the historical importance of this idea. Explain philosophical problems with the idea (both the types of problems mentioned by Plato, as well as the types of problems mentioned by Sartre). (Incidentally, the type of problem mentioned by Sartre has nothing to do with the fact that Sartre is an atheist.)
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