Migrants from Southeast Asia arrived in the Samoan islands more than 2,000 years ago and from there settled the rest of Polynesia further to the east. Contact with Europeans began in the early 1700s but did not intensify until the arrival of English missionaries and traders in the 1830s. At the turn of the 20th century, the Samoan islands were split into two sections. The eastern islands became territories of the United States in 1904 and today are known as American Samoa. The western islands became known as Western Samoa (now just Samoa), passing from German control to New Zealand in 1914. New Zealand administered Western Samoa under the auspices of the League of Nations and then as a UN trusteeship until independence in 1962. Western Samoa was the first Pacific Island country to gain its independence.

In July 1997 the Constitution was amended to change the country's name from Western Samoa to Samoa. Samoa had been known simply as Samoa in the United Nations since joining the organization in 1976. The neighboring U.S. territory of American Samoa protested the move, feeling that the change diminished its own Samoan identity. American Samoans still use the terms Western Samoa and Western Samoans.

The Samoan economy is dependent on agricultural exports, tourism, and capital flows from abroad. The effects of three natural disasters in the early 1990s were overcome by the middle of the decade, but economic growth cooled again with the regional economic downturn. Long-run development depends upon upgrading the tourist infrastructure, attracting foreign investment, and further diversification of the economy.

Two major cyclones hit Samoa at the beginning of the 1990s. Cyclone Ofa left an estimated 10,000 islanders homeless in February 1990; Cyclone Val caused 13 deaths and hundreds of millions of dollars in damage in December 1991. As a result, GDP declined by nearly 50% from 1989 to 1991. These experiences and Samoa's position as a low-lying island state punctuate its concern about global climate change.

Further economic problems occurred in 1994 with an outbreak of taro leaf blight and the near collapse of the national airline Polynesian Airlines. Taro, a root crop, traditionally was Samoa's largest export, generating more than half of all export revenue in 1993. But a fungal blight decimated the plants, and in each year since 1994 taro exports have accounted for less than 1% of export revenue. Polynesian Airlines reached a financial crisis in 1994, which disrupted the tourist industry and eventually required a government bailout.

The government responded to these shocks with a major program of road building and post-cyclone infrastructure repair. Economic reforms were stepped up, including the liberalization of exchange controls. GDP growth rebounded to over 6% in both 1995 and 1996 before slowing again at the end of the decade.

The service sector accounts for more than half of GDP and employs approximately 30% of the labor force. Tourism is the largest-single activity, more than doubling in visitor numbers and revenue over the last decade. More than 85,000 visitors came to Samoa in 1999, contributing over $12 million to the local economy. One-third came from American Samoa, 28% from New Zealand, and 11% from the United States. Arrivals increased in 2000, as visitors to the South Pacific avoided the political strife in Fiji by traveling to Samoa instead.

The primary sector (agriculture, forestry, and fishing) employs nearly two-thirds of the labor force and produces 17% of GDP. Important products include coconuts and fish.

Industry accounts for over one-quarter of GDP while employing less than 6% of the work force. The largest industrial venture is Yazaki Samoa, a Japanese-owned company processing automotive components for export to Australia under a concessional market-access arrangement. The Yazaki plant employs more than 2,000 workers and makes up over 20% of the manufacturing sector's total output. Net receipts amount to between $1.5 million and $3.03 million annually, although shipments from Yazaki are counted as services (export processing) and therefore do not officially appear as merchandise exports.

New Zealand is Samoa's principal trading partner, typically providing between 35% and 40% of imports and purchasing 45%-50% of exports. Australia, American Samoa, the U.S., and Fiji also are important trading partners. Samoa's principal exports are coconut products and fish. Its main imports are food and beverages, industrial supplies, and fuels.

The collapse of taro exports in 1994 has had the unintended effect of modestly diversifying Samoa's export products and markets. Prior to the taro leaf blight, Samoa's exports consisted of taro ($1.1 million), coconut cream ($540,000), and "other" ($350,000). Ninety percent of exports went to the Pacific region, and only 1% went to Europe. Forced to look for alternatives to taro, Samoa's exporters have dramatically increased the production of copra, coconut oil, and fish. These three products, which combined to produce export revenue of less than $100,000 in 1993, now account for over $3.8 million. There also has been a relative shift from Pacific markets to European ones, which now receive nearly 15% of Samoa's exports. Samoa's exports are still concentrated in coconut products ($2.36 million worth of copra, copra meal, coconut oil, and coconut cream) and fish ($1.51 million) but are at least somewhat more diverse than before.

Samoa annually receives important financial assistance from abroad. The more than 100,000 Samoans who live overseas provide two sources of revenue. Their direct remittances have amounted to $12.1 million per year recently, and they account for more than half of all tourist visits. In addition to the expatriate community, Samoa also receives roughly $7.57 million annually in official development assistance from sources led by Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. These three sources of revenue--tourism, private transfers, and official transfers--allow Samoa to cover its persistently large trade deficit.

The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respected this right in practice.

The Constitution acknowledges "an Independent State based on Christian principles and Samoan custom and traditions." Although Christianity is favored constitutionally, there is no official or state denomination.

The Constitution grants each person the right to change religion or belief and to worship or teach religion alone or with others; however, in practice, the matai often choose the religious denomination of the extended family. In past years, despite the constitutional protection, village fono in the name of maintaining social harmony within the village sometimes banished or punished families that did not adhere to the prevailing religious belief in the village. However, civil courts take precedence over village fono in matters involving the exercise of constitutional rights, and courts have ordered families readmitted to their villages. During the year, there were no new cases of individuals being banished by villages due to their practicing religion differently from that practiced by the village majority. However, in February, the Lands and Titles Court ordered the Salamumu village fono to readmit 3 families, consisting of approximately 80 persons, who were banned from the village in 1998 for organizing Bible study classes with the intention of establishing a new church there. In February, the families returned to Salamumu and, at year's end, were living there without incident. The court's order was the latest in a series of judicial decisions in recent years that affirmed that all laws, whether statutory or customary, are subject to the individual rights provided for in the Constitution.

INCIDENCE OF CRIME

The crime rate in Samoa is medium compared to industrialized countries. For purpose of comparison, data were drawn for the seven offenses used to compute the United States FBI's index of crime.  Index offenses include murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft. In the UN reports, murders are referred to as "intentional homicides." Aggravated assaults are referred to as "major assaults," and larcenies are referred to as "thefts." According to the United Nations Seventh Annual Survey on Crime, crime recorded in police statistics shows the crime rate for the combined total of all Index crimes in Samoa to be 628.99, per 100,000 inhabitants in 1993.This compares with 1283.67 for Japan (Samoa with a low crime rate) and 5035.00 for USA (Samoa with high crime rate). For intentional homicides, the rate in 1996 was 0.6 for Samoa, 0.49 for Japan, and 7.33 for USA. For major assaults, the rate in 1996 was 140.98 for Samoa, compared with 19.18 for Japan, and 386.96 for USA. (Note these data for Japan are for total recorded assaults, since Japan did not report a figure for major assaults.)For rapes, the rate in 1996 was 9.04 for Samoa, 1.18 for Japan, and 35.91 for USA. For robberies, the rate in 1996 was 1.20 for Samoa, 1.95 for Japan, and 199.85 for USA. For automobile theft, the rate in 1996 was not reported for Samoa, 217.56 for Japan, and 520.22 for USA. The rate of burglaries for 1996 was 113.27 for Samoa, 177.45 for Japan, and 935.22 for USA.  The rate for thefts in 1996 was 363.90 for Samoa, compared with 865.86 for Japan and 2949.51 for USA.  Data for Japan and US are for 1996.

TRENDS IN CRIME

Between 1990 (Fifth Annual Survey) and 1993 (Sixth Annual Survey) the rate for all recorded Index offenses increased from 342.51 to 628.99 per 100,000 in Samoa, an increase of 83.6%.  The rate of intentional homicide decreased from 1.88 to 0.6, a decrease of 68.1%. The rate for major assaults increased from 106.25 to 140.98, an increase of 32.7%.   The rate of rape increased from 6.25 to 9.04, an increase of 44.6%.  The rate for robberies decreased from 6.25 to 1.20 per 100,000, a decrease of 80.8%.  The rate of automobile theft was not reported in either year.  The rate of burglaries increased from 60.63 to 113.27, an increase of 86.8%.   Thefts increased from 161.25 to 363.9, an increase of 125.7%.

The civilian authorities maintained effective control over the small national police force, but it had little effect beyond Apia, the capital city. The country has no defense force. There were no confirmed reports that security forces committed human rights abuses. Enforcement of rules and security within individual villages is vested in the "fono" (Council of Matai), which settles most internal disputes. Judgments by the fono usually involve fines or, more rarely, banishment from the village.

The Constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the Government generally observed these prohibitions.

The country's police, prison guards, and firefighters all belong to a consolidated national service. A commissioner appointed to a fixed 3 year term of office heads this service. He is assisted by four assistant commissioners and reports to the Minister of Police. Corruption and impunity were not significant problems among the police; however, a lack of resources limited police effectiveness.

The law provides for issuance by the Supreme Court of an arrest warrant based on sufficient evidence, and the Government generally adhered to this provision in practice. The law provides for the right to a prompt judicial determination regarding the legality of detention, and the authorities generally respected this right in practice. Detainees are informed within 24 hours of the charges against them, or they are released. Detainees were allowed prompt access to family members and a lawyer of their choice. If the detainee is indigent, the Government provides a lawyer. There was a functioning system of bail.

The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the Government generally respected this provision in practice.

The judiciary consists of the District Court, the Lands and Titles Court, the Supreme Court, and the Court of Appeals. The Court of Appeals is the highest court. It has appellate jurisdiction only and can review the rulings of any other court. It is composed of a panel of retired New Zealand judges and sits once a year for several weeks.

The law provides for the right to a fair trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforced this right. The accused must be charged within 24 hours. A trial judge examines evidence and makes a determination as to whether there are grounds to proceed. Trials are public, and defendants have the right to be present and to timely consultation with an attorney, at public expense if required. Defendants may confront witnesses and present witnesses and evidence on their own behalf. Defendants and their attorneys have access to government held evidence, and defendants have the right to appeal a verdict.

However, many civil and criminal matters were handled by village fono, which varied considerably both in their decisionmaking style and in the number of matai involved in the decisions. The 1990 Village Fono Act gives legal recognition to the decisions of the fono and provides for limited appeal to the Lands and Titles Court and to the Supreme Court. In 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the Village Fono Act may not be used to infringe upon villagers' freedom of religion, speech, assembly, or association. More recent court decisions reinforced this principle .

Prison conditions generally appeared to meet international standards, although they were fairly basic with respect to food and sanitation. Prison policy permitted inmates with medical conditions to retain their respective medications and to take them as prescribed; however, during the year, a diabetic paraplegic prisoner died after he was locked in an isolation cell as punishment for suspected marijuana use and reportedly did not have access to his medication. The case was referred to the Police Commissioner for investigation. According to the Commissioner, the prisoner had his medications at the time of his death and a postmortem examination found that the prisoner's death was not related to his medications.

Within the country's sole prison, men and women were housed separately, juveniles were held separately from adults, and pretrial detainees were separated from convicted prisoners.

There were no known requests by independent human rights observers to visit the prison; however, the Government indicated that it would permit such visits. The Government also permitted visits by family members and church representatives.

While the law prohibits the abuse of women, social custom tolerates their physical abuse within the home; such abuse was common. The role and rights of the village fono and tradition prevented police from interfering in instances of domestic violence, unless there was a complaint from the victim which village custom strongly discouraged. While police received some complaints from abused women, domestic violence offenders typically were punished by village fono, but only if the abuse was considered extreme (that is, visible signs of physical abuse). Village religious leaders also may intervene in domestic disputes. The Government punished persons responsible for extreme assault cases, including by imprisonment.

The Government did not keep statistics on domestic abuse cases, but acknowledged the problem to be one of increasing concern. Under a project funded by the Australian government and attached to the Ministry of Police, the Government was working to develop an interagency approach to combat domestic violence. One aim of the project was to train police officers to respond to domestic disputes and to work with NGOs to support their counseling of victims and abusers. At year's end, proposed options to accomplish the project's goals were under consideration by the Government.

Many cases of rape still go unreported because tradition and custom discourage such reporting; spousal rape is not illegal. Nonetheless, the authorities noted an increasing number of reported cases of rape, as women slowly became more forthcoming with the police. Rape cases that reached the courts were treated seriously. Convicted offenders often were given sentences of several years' imprisonment.

Prostitution is illegal; it existed, but was not a major problem. The law does not address sex tourism specifically; however, it was not a problem. The law prohibits sexual harassment; it was not a widespread problem but was believed to be underreported.

Women have equal rights under the Constitution and statutory law, and the traditional subordinate role of women is changing, albeit slowly, particularly in the more conservative parts of society. The Ministry of Women, Community, and Social Development oversees and helps secure the rights of women. In order to integrate women into the economic mainstream, the Government sponsored literacy programs and training programs for those who did not complete high school.

The Government made a strong commitment to the welfare of children through the implementation of various youth programs by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Health. Education is formally compulsory through age 14; however, the Government did not enforce this law, and the children of families that could not pay the required school fees were unable to attend. Boys and girls were treated equally and attended school in approximately equal percentages. Most children attended school through junior high school. The Government provided health care for children at public hospitals for minimal charge. Law and tradition prohibit severe abuse of children, but both tolerate corporal punishment. The police have noted an increase in reported cases of child abuse, which was attributed to citizens becoming more aware of the need to report the physical, emotional, and sexual abuse of children. The Government aggressively prosecuted such cases. There were no reports of commercial sexual exploitation of children. The NGO Mapusaga o Aiga (Women against Domestic Violence) provided limited educational programs on children's rights.

There was one privately run behavior modification camp for foreign children with emotional or behavioral problems. The children were enrolled in the camp by their parents.

The law prohibits forced or compulsory labor, including by children; however, in this collective society, persons, including minors, frequently were called upon to work for their villages. Most persons did so willingly; however, the matai may compel those who do not.

Under the law, it is illegal to employ children under 15 years of age except in "safe and light work." The Ministry of Labor refers complaints about illegal child labor to the Attorney General for enforcement; however, no cases were prosecuted during the year. Children frequently were seen vending goods and food on Apia street corners. The Government has not made a definitive determination as to whether this practice violates the country's labor laws, which cover only persons who have a place of employment. Although the practice may constitute a violation of the law, local officials mostly tolerated it. There were no reports of compulsory labor by children; however, the law does not apply to service rendered to the matai, some of whom required children to work for the village, primarily on village farms (see Section 6.c.). The extent of this practice varied by village, but it generally did not significantly disrupt children's education.

The law does not prohibit specifically trafficking in persons; however, unlike in the previous year, there were no reports that persons were trafficked to, from, or within the country.

DRUG TRAFFICKING

The two drugs of concern in American Samoa, and the only two for which substantive information exists, are methamphetamine and marijuana. Quantifying the drug threat in American Samoa is difficult. Until 2000, the territory did not collect or store drug-related data; therefore, much of the information in this report is based on anecdotal reporting. Methamphetamine has recently supplanted marijuana as the most serious drug threat in American Samoa. Local law enforcement authorities point to rising methamphetamine abuse as the cause for a rise in violent crime in the territory.

Powdered methamphetamine use in the territory is limited. Most users prefer to smoke the extremely pure (90 to 100%) crystal form known as "ice," and recent reports indicate that methamphetamine laboratories may be present on the islands.

Drug trafficking organizations and criminal groups often use the mail system and cargo vessels to smuggle drugs to American Samoa. The U.S. Postal Service (USPS) delivers mail in American Samoa. The USPS in Honolulu screens all packages bound for American Samoa from Hawaii before handlers load the packages onto aircraft. Drug trafficking organizations also use cargo vessels to smuggle marijuana from Samoa to American Samoa. The Government of American Samoa is responsible for its own customs and immigration enforcement.

The American Samoa legislature passed laws in 1999 making the possession of even small amounts of illegal drugs punishable by long jail terms with no possibility of parole. News reports widely publicize the sentences given offenders. This publicity is part of a concerted effort on the part of local authorities to combat an alarming increase in drug trafficking and use.

Intelligence gaps concerning the drug threat are numerous and extensive in American Samoa, which has begun only recently to computerize local records. Officials do not have a central repository for drug-related data. While American Samoan authorities recognize the growing threat that illegal drugs pose in the territory, many express frustration at the perceived lack of attention paid to the islands by federal authorities. Recent visits to the island by officials of the U.S. Department of Justice have provided encouraging signs to local authorities.

In most cases, national databases such as the Treatment Episode Data Set, the Drug Abuse Warning Network, Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance and Monitoring the Future do not include population surveys of American Samoa. The territory is given only cursory mention, which makes quantification of the drug threat difficult.

Internet research assisted by Bryan T. Glasrud and Michael Lapena