Comparative Criminology

World : Asia : Fiji

Melanesian and Polynesian peoples settled the Fijian islands some 3,500 years ago. European traders and missionaries arrived in the first half of the 19th century, and the resulting disruption led to increasingly serious wars among the native Fijian confederacies. One Ratu (chief), Cakobau, gained limited control over the western islands by the 1850s, but the continuing unrest led him and a convention of chiefs to cede Fiji unconditionally to the British in 1874.

The pattern of colonialism in Fiji during the following century was similar to that in many other British possessions: the pacification of the countryside, the spread of plantation agriculture, and the introduction of Indian indentured labor. Many traditional institutions, including the system of communal land ownership, were maintained.

Fiji soldiers fought alongside the Allies in the Second World War, gaining a fine reputation in the tough Solomon Islands campaign. The United States and other Allied countries maintained military installations in Fiji during the war, but Fiji itself never came under attack.

In April 1970, a constitutional conference in London agreed that Fiji should become a fully sovereign and independent nation within the Commonwealth. Fiji became independent on October 10, 1970. Post-independence politics came to be dominated by the Alliance Party of Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara. The Indian-led opposition won a majority of House seats in 1977, but failed to form a government out of concern that indigenous Fijians would not accept Indo-Fijian leadership. In April 1987, a coalition led by Dr. Timoci Bavadra, an ethnic Fijian supported by the Indo-Fijian community, won the general election and formed Fiji's first majority Indian government, with Dr. Bavadra serving as Prime Minister. Less than a month later, Dr. Bavadra was forcibly removed from power during a military coup led by Lt. Col. Sitiveni Rabuka on May 14, 1987.

After a period of deadlocked negotiations, Rabuka staged a second coup on September 25, 1987. The military government revoked the constitution and declared Fiji a republic on October 10. This action, coupled with protests by the Government of India, led to Fiji's expulsion from the Commonwealth of Nations and official nonrecognition of the Rabuka regime from foreign governments, including Australia and New Zealand. On December 6, Rabuka resigned as head of state and Governor General Ratu Sir Penaia Ganilau was appointed the first President of the Fijian Republic. Mara was reappointed Prime Minister, and Rabuka became Minister of Home Affairs.

The new government drafted a new Constitution that went into force in July 1990. Under its terms, majorities were reserved for ethnic Fijians in both houses of the legislature. Previously, in 1989, the government had released statistical information showing that for the first time since 1946, ethnic Fijians were a majority of the population. More than 12,000 Indo-Fijians and other minorities had left the country in the 2 years following the 1987 coups. After resigning from the military, Rabuka became prime minister under the new constitution in 1993.

Tensions simmered in 1995-96 over the renewal of land leases and political maneuvering surrounding the mandated 7-year review of the 1990 constitution. The Constitutional Review Commission produced a draft constitution that expanded the size of the legislature, lowered the proportion of seats reserved by ethnic group, and reserved the presidency for ethnic Fijians, but opened the position of prime minister to all races. Prime Minister Rabuka and President Mara supported the proposal, while the nationalist indigenous Fijian parties opposed it. The reformed constitution was approved in July 1997. Fiji was readmitted to the Commonwealth in October.

The first legislative elections held under the new constitution took place in May 1999. Rabuka's coalition was defeated by the Fiji Labor Party, which formed a coalition, led by Mahendra Chaudhry, with two small Fijian parties. Chaudhry became Fiji's first Indo-Fijian prime minister. One year later, in May 2000, Chaudhry and most other members of parliament were taken hostage in the House of Representatives by gunmen led by ethnic Fijian nationalist George Speight. The standoff dragged on for 8 weeks--during which time Chaudhry was removed from office by the then-president due to his incapacitation. The Republic of Fiji military forces then seized power and brokered a negotiated end to the situation. Speight was later arrested when he violated its terms. In February 2002, Speight was convicted of treason and is currently serving a life sentence.

Former banker Laisenia Qarase was named interim prime minister and head of the interim civilian administration by the military and Great Council of Chiefs in July. The Supreme Court reaffirmed the validity of the Constitution and ordered the Chaudhry government returned to power in March 2001, after which the President dissolved the Parliament elected in 2000 and appointed Qarase head of a caretaker government until elections could be held in August. Qarase's newly formed Soqosoqo Duavata ni Lewenivanua (SDL) party won the elections. The SDL declined to include the largely Indo-Fijian Fiji Labor Party (FLP) in the Cabinet on a legal technicality. The 1997 Constitution states that any party receiving 10% or more of the seats in Parliament must be given an opportunity to be represented in the Cabinet in proportion to its numbers in the House of Representatives. Fiji's Supreme Court is expected to rule on the make up of the Cabinet in 2004.

ECONOMY

Fiji is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, although it remains a developing country with a large subsistence agriculture sector. The effects of the Asian financial crisis contributed to substantial drops in GDP in 1997 and 1998, with a return to positive growth in 1999 aided by a 20% devaluation of the Fijian dollar. According to the Asian Development Bank, the economy contracted by 4.7% in 2000, but recovered quickly and grew by about 4 % a year, every year since. The Government of Fiji reported that growth was driven by a recovery in the tourism industry as well as by improved performance in mining, the harvesting and processing of mahogany, and fresh fish exports.

Tourism has expanded rapidly since the early 1980s and is the leading economic activity in the islands. Approximately 445,000 people visited Fiji in 2004. About one-third came from Australia, with large contingents also coming from New Zealand, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan. More than 70,000 of the tourists were American, a number that has steadily increased since the start of regularly scheduled nonstop air service from Los Angeles. In 2004, Fiji's gross earnings from tourism were about $430 million, an amount double the revenue from its two largest goods exports (sugar and garments). Gross earnings from tourism continue to be Fiji's major source of foreign currency.

Fiji runs a persistently large trade deficit, although its tourism revenue yields a services surplus. Australia accounts for between 35% and 45% of Fiji's trade, with New Zealand, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan varying year-by-year between 5% and 15% each. Fiji's two largest exports are sugar and garments, with each accounting for about one-quarter of export revenue in 2004--roughly $145 million each. The potential collapse of Fiji's sugar industry, due to quality concerns, poor administration, and the phasing out of a preferential price agreement with the European Union possibly beginning in 2005, also poses a major threat to Fiji's already uncertain economic well-being. The Fijian garment industry has developed rapidly since the introduction of tax exemptions in 1988. The industry's output has increased nearly ten-fold since that time, but the lower labor costs of Chinese competitors, the softening of a trade preference agreement with Australia, and elimination of quota restrictions imposed on competing nations by the U.S., have resulted in closures of most garment factories in the country.

Other important export crops include coconuts and ginger, although production levels of both are declining. Fiji has extensive mahogany timber reserves, which are only now being exploited. Fishing is an important export and local food source. Gold and silver are also exported. The most important manufacturing activities are the processing of sugar and fish. Since 2000 the export of still mineral water, mainly to the United States, has expanded rapidly. By mid-2004, it was more than $35 million per year.

Since the 1960s, Fiji has had a high rate of emigration, particularly of Indo-Fijians in search of better economic opportunities. This has been particularly true of persons with education and skills. The economic and political uncertainty following the 1987 and 2000 coups added to the outward flow by persons of all ethnic groups. In recent years, indigenous Fijians also have begun to emigrate in large numbers, often to seek employment as home health care workers. Unemployment is high, and wages are very low. Advertised white-collar job openings often attract hundreds of applicants, many of whom are well-qualified.

Other long-term economic problems include low investment rates and uncertain property rights. Investment laws are being reviewed to make them more business-friendly, including a relaxation of work permit requirements. Investor confidence in Fiji dropped significantly immediately after the coup in 2000. However, in April 2002, Moody's Investor's Service upgraded its Ba2 sovereign rating of Fiji from negative to stable, noting that despite continuing domestic political uncertainties, the country's external financial position had weathered the past 2 year's volatility without significant deterioration. External liquidity remained adequate.

BELIEFS

The Constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the Government generally respected this right in practice. Religious groups were not required to register. The Government did not restrict foreign clergy and missionary activity or other typical religious activities. Religious differences are largely along ethnic lines; most ethnic Fijians are Christians, and most Indo Fijians are Hindu, with a sizable minority of Muslims. The Government protected the rights of all religious groups. The major holidays of Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam were celebrated nationally.

The role of religion was tied closely to existing racial antagonisms and continued to be a political problem. Prominent figures in the Methodist Church and allied political parties continued to advocate the establishment of a Christian state. This position received public support from several M.P.s. The Church has displayed strong nationalistsympathies.

Nearly all of the indigenous Fijians are Christian; more than three-quarters are Methodist. Approximately 80% of the Indo-Fijians are Hindu, 15% are Muslim, and most of the rest are Sikh, while a few are Christian.

CIVIL DISORDER

The economy contracted by 9.3 percent in 2000, reflecting the impact of political instability in May 2000 and the associated widespread civil disorder and reactions of potential investors, tourists, and the international community. Looting and the destruction of property led to the suspension of operations by many businesses, particularly in the main centers of Suva, Lautoka, and Nadi. The international community’s responses included reduced aid flows, imposition of diplomatic and trade sanctions, and travel advisories to tourists. Government activities were also adversely affected, including basic services such as power and water, and the operation of government departments.

After very rapid growth in 1999 of 9.6 percent, led by the sugar and tourism sectors, the contraction in 2000 was seen mainly in the nonagriculture sectors of the economy: manufacturing output fell by 12 percent, construction by 25 percent, and activity in the trade, restaurant, and hotel sector by 15 percent. Tourism shrank by around 30 percent, as arrivals fell from the record level of 410,000 seen in 1999 to about 280,000 in 2000. Hotel occupancy rates were only 20–30 percent in July and August compared with around 80 percent in the same period of the previous year. Several major investment projects, including new tourism facilities, were postponed. Investment had long been weak and declined further in 2000 to less than 10 percent of GDP. The retail sector suffered from a general decline in consumer spending associated with the civil disorder, particularly in Suva; this decline stemmed from high numbers of redundancies, wage cuts, and fewer tourist arrivals.

INCIDENCE

The crime rate in Fiji is low compared to industrialized countries, with the important exception of murder. An analysis was done using INTERPOL data for Fiji. For purpose of comparison, data were drawn for the seven offenses used to compute the United States FBI's index of crime. Index offenses include murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft. The combined total of these offenses constitutes the Index used for trend calculation purposes. Fiji will be compared with Japan (country with a low crime rate) and USA (country with a high crime rate). According to the INTERPOL data, for murder, the rate in 1999 was 2.90 per 100,000 population for Fiji, 1.00 for Japan, and 4.55 for USA. For rape, the rate in 1999 was 11.10 for Fiji, compared with 1.47 for Japan and 32.05 for USA. For robbery, the rate in 1999 was 90.67 for Fiji, 3.34 for Japan, and 147.36 for USA. For aggravated assault, the rate in 1999 was 44.14 for Fiji, 15.97 for Japan, and 329.63 for USA. For burglary, the rate in 1999 was 427.87 for Fiji, 206.01 for Japan, and 755.29 for USA. The rate of larceny for 1999 was 119.67 for Fiji, 1267.95 for Japan, and 2502.66 for USA. The rate for motor vehicle theft in 1999 was 44.39 for Fiji, compared with 34.01 for Japan and 412.70 for USA. The rate for all index offenses combined was 740.74 for Fiji, compared with 1529.75 for Japan and 4184.24 for USA. (Note: data were not reported to INTERPOL by the USA for 1999, but were derived from data reported to the United Nations for 1999)

TRENDS

Between 1995 and 1999, according to INTERPOL data, the rate of murder decreased from 3.02 to 2.90 per 100,000 population, a decrease of 4.0%. The rate for rape decreased from 15.37 to 11.10, a decrease of 27.8%. The rate of robbery decreased from 146.35 to 90.67, a decrease of 38.0%. The rate for aggravated assault decreased from 46.98 to 44.14, a decrease of 6.0%. The rate for burglary increased from 153.27 to 427.87, an increase of 179.2%. The rate of larceny decreased from 558.06 to 119.67, a decrease of 78.6%. The rate of motor vehicle theft decreased from 58.44 to 44.39, a decrease of 24.0%. The rate of total index offenses decreased from 981.49 to 740.74, a decrease of 24.5%. Note that data for 1995 were drawn from the UN Sixth Annual Survey.

LEGAL SYSTEM

Fiji's legal system is that of a common law tradition, based on the British system, with early Roman and modern continental influences; has judicial review of Acts of Parliament under the Human Rights Act of 1998; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations.

POLICE

National security is monitored and acted upon by the National Security Council (NSC), which is composed of the Prime Minister; the Ministers of Home Affairs, Foreign Affairs, and Attorney General; the Commissioner of Police; and the Commander of the Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF). During the year, the civilian authorities generally maintained effective control of the unarmed civilian police force and the RFMF. There were occasional complaints of human rights abuses by the police. Most, if not all, were investigated, and individual members of the police have been charged and tried. There were no reports the RFMF committed human rights abuses.

DETENTION

The Constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the Government generally observed these prohibitions.

The Government continued a program initiated in 2003 to improve the police force and address the problem of corruption. Allegations of corruption, once rampant in the police force, were investigated, and charges and prison sentences have resulted. Some officers were removed from the force.

The law provides that a person may bearrested only if police believe a law has been broken or is about to be broken. Arrested persons must be brought before a court without "undue delay." This requirement normally was interpreted to mean within 24 hours, with 48 hours as the exception. Detainees have the right to a judicial review of the grounds for their arrest; however, allegations of incommunicado and arbitrary detention continued to occur on occasion.

COURTS

The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, the judiciary at times has been subject to political pressure.

The country's judicial structure is patterned on the British system. The principal courts are the magistrate courts, the High Court, the Court of Appeal, and the Supreme Court. Eight of nine Supreme Court justices are expatriate judges, who often were used in key cases at lower levels. Except for the Family Court, there are no special courts. Military courts try members of the armed forces. Magistrate courts try the large majority of cases. In addition to its jurisdiction in serious civil and criminal cases, the High Court is granted special-interest jurisdiction on behalf of the public and is empowered to review alleged violations of individual rights.

Defendants have the right to a public trial and to counsel. Trials in the High Court provide for the presence of assessors (citizens randomly selected to represent the community); cases in magistrate courts do not. Many rape and sexual assault cases were heard in the magistrate courts; since magistrates are not authorized to impose sentences longer than 5 years in prison, this resulted in light sentences in most domestic or family law cases. The Legal Aid Commission provided counsel to some indigent defendants, a service supplemented by voluntary services from private attorneys. The right of appeal exists but often was hampered by delays in the process. Bail was granted freely. The courts had a significant backlog of cases, and processing was slowed by, among other things, a shortage of prosecutors. Some defendants faced lengthy pretrial detention.

The law sometimes treated women differently from men. In some instances, there was a presumption of reduced competence and thus reduced responsibility for women. For example, only women can be charged with infanticide; if a man kills an infant, the act is treated as murder, a more serious charge. A female defendant in an infanticide case was presumed to have diminished mental capacity, and sentences were reduced or suspended accordingly.

CORRECTIONS

Prison conditions did not meet international standards. The prison system was seriously underfunded, with deteriorating infrastructure and poor delivery of essential services, including food and sanitation. Courts released prisoners on bail to minimize their exposure to an environment described as "overcrowded, unsanitary, degrading, and inhumane" by a sitting judge who, in response to prisoner complaints, made a surprise visit to the Suva prison. Human rights organizations have received credible reports of prisoner abuse by guards; however, there were no indications that abuse was officially condoned. Men and women were held separately, juveniles were held separately from adults, and pretrial detainees were separated from convicted prisoners.

During the year, the International Committee for the Red Cross (ICRC) was given access to all prisoners. Family members also were permitted to visit prisoners.

WOMEN

Domestic abuse, rape, and incest were major problems. Reliable estimates indicated that 10 percent of women had been abused in some way. An active women's rights movement addressed the problem of domestic violence. Police have adopted a "no drop" rule, under which they prosecute cases of domestic violence even when the victim does not wish to press charges. Nonetheless, cases of domestic abuse and incest often were dismissed by courts or received minimal sentences. The traditional practice of reconciliation between the aggrieved parties sometimes was taken into account to mitigate sentences in domestic violence cases, particularly in cases of incest.

The women's rights movement pressed for serious punishment for rape. Sentences varied widely. Women's groups continued to urge that all rape cases be heard in the High Court, where lengthier sentences are available. However, the law accords an accused rapist the right to choose between the High Court and magistrates' courts. Since there have been no effective prosecutions for marital rape, women's activists continued to press for inclusion of marital rape in a new Domestic Violence Bill on which public hearings were held in November by the Attorney General's office.

Prostitution is illegal, although it can be found, particularly in Suva. The law prohibits sex tourism as well as sexual harassment; neither was considered to be a significant problem.

Suva, Ba, Labasa, and Lautoka have women's crisis centers funded by foreign governments. The centers offered counseling and assistance to women in cases of domestic violence, rape, and other problems, such as child support. The NGO Femlink Pacific distributed information at the grassroots level and encouraged community based dialogue. The Ministry of Women provided a Gender Awareness Program to educate soldiers and police officers about women's concerns.

Under the Constitution, male and female citizens enjoy equal rights in regard to the granting of residence for spouses, and with regard to the registration and racial designation of children for purposes of enrollment on electoral rolls and entitlement to ethnic, communal property rights. The 2003 Family Law established "no fault" divorce.

Women had full rights, in law and practice, of property ownership and inheritance, and a number were successful entrepreneurs. Other than a prohibition on working in mines, there were no legal limitations on the employment of women. Women generally were paid less than men for similar work.

CHILDREN

The Government devoted 19 percent of the national budget to education and also worked to improve children's health and welfare. School is mandatory until age 15. The inability of some families to pay school fees and bus fare limited attendance for some children.

The Government provided free medical care for children at public health centers and hospitals. Government nurses provided free immunizations for children in primary schools.

Societal changes have undermined traditional village and extended family based structures. Outgrowths of these changes have included increased child abuse and a number of homeless youths in urban areas. Some youths found employment in the informal sector. Children worked on the streets, in homes as domestics, and in auto repair shops.Homeless children often were seen on the street working as shoeshine boys or nvolved in prostitution. Child prostitution, along with prostitution in general, appeared to increase during the year and affected both the ethnic Fijian and Indo Fijian communities.

Children's testimony was largely inadmissible in courts unless corroborated by an adult.

The 2003 Family Law established that illegitimate children have the same rights as legitimate children.

TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS

There are no laws that specifically address trafficking in persons, although laws against procuring a woman to become a prostitute, kidnapping, and bonded and forced labor could be used to prosecute traffickers. There were no substantiated reports of trafficking in persons to, from, or within the country during the year.

There was an increase during the year in persons arriving in or transiting the country with altered or falsified travel documents. The police believed that an organized Asian criminal network in the country coordinated these and other illegal movements of persons. However, most appeared to be economic migrants rather than victims of trafficking.

Child prostitution also was a problem, affecting both the ethnic Fijian and Indo Fijian communities.

The Government did not sponsor or provide assistance to any programs to combat or prevent trafficking in persons.

DRUG TRAFFICKING

Neither Fiji nor Tonga is a major producer or a significant consumer of narcotics. There are some indications that drug syndicates are using both Fiji and Tonga as transshipment points for drugs bound for Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. Police suspect that Fiji has also been used to transship drugs to the United States. Both Fiji and Tonga are parties to the 1988 UN Drug Convention.

The greatest impediments to effective narcotics enforcement in Fiji and Tonga are their outdated laws and inexperienced and under-trained police. For example, Fiji law requires the approval of the President of Fiji in order to conduct a wiretap. Fiji law also requires that before customs officers can open a suspicious package or container the owner must be informed and must be present. Even when laws provide for modern investigative techniques, the police are often unable to manage such techniques. The maximum possible sentence for narcotics offenses in Fiji is eight years. While both Fiji and Tonga have passed money-laundering legislation that deals specifically with proceeds from narcotics-related crimes (Fiji in 1997 and Tonga in 2000), neither country has made an arrest nor secured a conviction under their respective laws.

Both Fiji and Tonga have laws permitting controlled deliveries of drugs for investigative purposes, although the ability of both local police forces to conduct such operations is limited. They do not have the training, personnel, or equipment to conduct the surveillance that would be part of a controlled delivery. Fiji police have conducted one controlled delivery with personnel and technical assistance from the Australian federal police. The use of controlled deliveries by the police is also limited because Fiji and Tonga laws require the police to prosecute only based on the amount allowed to remain in the controlled delivery and not the original amount of drugs.

Fiji's Attorney General submitted a bill to Parliament in April 2003 that would stiffen penalties for the possession and sale of illegal narcotics. The Illicit Drug Bill was designed to replace the Dangerous Drugs Act, which dealt with both medicinal narcotics and illegal substances. The bill is still under consideration.

Fiji does have a law providing for the confiscation of the proceeds earned from the commission of serious offenses. The Fiji police have never used this authority. Nor have they ever used the provision of the law for identifying criminal proceeds; evidentiary requirements under the law might well exceed the capacity of local investigative officials.

Both Fiji and Tonga are taking steps to try to modernize their narcotics laws and criminal investigative procedures. Fiji and Tonga established Combined Law Agency Groups (CLAGs) in 2002, and they remained active in 2003. CLAGs consist of law enforcement and other agencies and are designed to provide for the timely exchange of information, enhance cooperation efforts, and develop joint target strategies between the two countries counternarcotics officials.

Fiji has a growing internal problem from the cultivation and sale of cannabis. Other than cannabis, neither Fiji nor Tonga produces any drugs. Neither plays any role in the procurement of precursor chemicals. As the agricultural sector of the economy continues to experience difficulties, an increasing number of farmers are switching to cannabis. There are no known incidents of exports of cannabis from Fiji. Cannabis is the illicit drug of choice, primarily for economic reasons. The average income level in Fiji does not allow for the purchase or use of more expensive drugs. Cannabis seizures increased in 2003 from 2002's extremely low level of 1.15 kilograms to at least 30 kilograms. However, record-keeping is complicated by the Government's practice of recording both grams of cannabis seized (in ready-to-sell form) and whole plants seized. For example, the number of whole plants seized increased from 2,010 in 2002 to at least 4,000 in 2003.

Both Fiji and Tonga are parties to the 1988 UN Drug Convention and both are trying to meet the goals and objectives of the Convention. Fiji and Tonga are also parties to the 1961 UN Single Convention, as amended by the 1972 Protocol, and the 1971 UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances.

The 1931 U.S.-UK Extradition Treaty remains in force between the United States and Tonga through a 1977 exchange of notes. Similarly, the 1931 U.S.-UK Extradition Treaty remains in force between the United States and Fiji through an exchange of notes that entered into force in 1973.

Both the political instability caused by the coup d'etat in 2000 and poverty make Fiji highly vulnerable to corruption, and poverty also contributes to corruption in Tonga. Of particular concern in Fiji are the low salaries and status enjoyed by customs and immigration officials. The presence of increasing numbers o of illegal migrants in Fiji has been connected with increased vulnerability to alien smuggling, narcotics trafficking, and, potentially, transiting terrorists. However, as a matter of government policy and practice, Fiji and Tonga do not encourage or facilitate the illicit production or distribution of drugs or the laundering of proceeds from illegal drug transactions.

According to Tongan officials, Tonga faces an increased threat from the large number of criminal deportees sent from the United States. Officials note that an average of more than 20 criminals have been deported from the U.S. to Tonga every year since 2000. Many of these deportees had been convicted for drug-related crimes and other serious offenses, such as armed assault, armed robbery, and sexual assault. In 2001, for example, Tongan police identified at least three deportees who were members of the “Tonnage Crip Gang” while they were in the United States. Tongan authorities say that they are now faced with sophisticated criminals whose skills and knowledge exceed those of the local authorities. Authorities in Tonga have stated that crime is increasing 40 percent each year in Tonga. Tongan police do not have the training or equipment to deal with the increase in either the number of crimes or the sophistication of criminals.

Police in Fiji mounted a major offensive against marijuana cultivation and sale in 2003. Expecting an increase in production to coincide with the South Pacific Games in July 2003, the acting Police Commissioner organized sweeps of known cultivation areas on both of Fiji's main islands, and set up interception teams at choke-points leading to major urban markets. The result was a 100 percent increase in whole plants seized, and eradication results that were 25 times higher than in 2002. There were consequences, however. Villagers in the northern island of Vanua Levu who cooperated with the police in pinpointing cultivation areas received death threats from growers, according to media reports.

U.S. Government counter-narcotics initiatives in Fiji and Tonga have concentrated on helping both countries secure their borders from the multiple and related threats of people smuggling, narcotics smuggling, and possible transit by international terrorists. In 2003, the U.S. Government helped fund seminars in Fiji by the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat on drug interdiction, and by the UN Development Program on narcotics—risk assessment, profiling and search methodologies. These seminars were open to police and customs officials from the region, including Tonga and Fiji. Further cooperation in the fields of airport and port security is planned with both Fiji and Tonga.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Internet research assisted by Bryan T. Glasrud and Sheetal Saini

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