Archaeological findings throughout the area indicate that Senegal was inhabited in prehistoric times. Islam established itself in the Senegal River valley in the 11th century; 95% of Senegalese today are Muslims. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the area came under the influence of the Mandingo empires to the east; the Jolof Empire of Senegal also was founded during this time.

In January 1959, Senegal and the French Soudan merged to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent on June 20, 1960, as a result of the independence and the transfer of power agreement signed with France on April 4, 1960. Due to internal political difficulties, the Federation broke up on August 20, 1960. Senegal and Soudan (renamed the Republic of Mali) proclaimed independence. Leopold Sedar Senghor, internationally known poet, politician, and statesman, was elected Senegal's first president in August 1960.

After the breakup of the Mali Federation, President Senghor and Prime Minister Mamadou Dia governed together under a parliamentary system. In December 1962, their political rivalry led to an attempted coup by Prime Minister Dia. Although this was put down without bloodshed, Dia was arrested and imprisoned, and Senegal adopted a new constitution that consolidated the President’s power. In 1980, President Senghor decided to retire from politics, and he handed power over in 1981 to his handpicked successor, Abdou Diouf.

Abdou Diouf was president from 1981-2000. He encouraged broader political participation, reduced government involvement in the economy, and widened Senegal's diplomatic engagements, particularly with other developing nations. Domestic politics on occasion spilled over into street violence, border tensions, and a violent separatist movement in the southern region of the Casamance. Nevertheless, Senegal's commitment to democracy and human rights strengthened. Diouf served four terms as President. In the presidential election of 2000, he was defeated, in a free and fair election, by opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade. Senegal experienced its second peaceful transition of power, and its first from one political party to another.

Today, Senegal is a moderately decentralized republic dominated by a strong presidency. In March 2000, opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade, backed by a coalition of opposition parties, became president in an election considered to be both free and fair and marred only by reports of sporadic pre-election violence and minor procedural irregularities. The post-election transition period was markedly free from violence and characterized by good conduct on the part of all candidates. In a January referendum, 94 percent of voters accepted the new Constitution, which abolished the Senate, a body that had no directly elected members. On April 29, President Wade's Sopi (Change) coalition, comprised of the Senegalese Democratic Party (PDS) and its allies, earned 49.6 percent of the votes cast and gained a majority of 89 of 120 seats in the National Assembly elections, which were unmarked by violence and judged to be free and fair. The Government continued to implement decentralized regional and local administrations. Sporadic fighting continued in the Casamance area in the southern part of the country between the Government and the secessionist Movement of Democratic Forces in the Casamance (MFDC). In March the Government and the MFDC signed two peace agreements designed to end the 20-year insurgency; however, these agreements have been ineffective and fighting continued in Casamance. Following a change in MFDC leadership in August, new talks were proposed but had not taken place by year's end 2001. The Constitution provides for an independent judiciary; however, it is subject in practice to government influence and pressure.

In 2001, the GDP - per capita was$1,580. Population below poverty line was 54%. The household income or consumption by percentage share was: lowest 10%: 1.4% and highest 10%: 42.8%, Distribution of family income - Gini index was 41.3 (1995). The unemployment rate was 48% (urban youth 40%).

The country is predominantly agricultural with about 70 percent of the labor force engaged in farming; its population is approximately 10 million. Recorded gross domestic product (GDP) per capita is estimated at about $500 (370,000 CFA francs), but this excludes a large informal economy. Since the devaluation of the CFA franc in 1994, the Government has implemented a series of economic policy reforms to enhance competitiveness by dismantling monopolies, liberalizing markets, and privatizing several state-owned industries. Recorded GDP per capita has grown at an average rate of approximately 5 percent per year since 1995. Exports account for about one-third of recorded GDP and are led by fish and fish products, phosphates and fertilizers, tourism, and peanuts. The Government continued to receive external assistance from international financial institutions and other sources, and such assistance represents approximately 32 percent of the national budget.

The reported crime rate in Senegal is extremely low compared to industrialized countries. An analysis was done using INTERPOL data for Senegal. For purpose of comparison, data were drawn for the seven offenses used to compute the United States FBI's index of crime. Index offenses include murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft. The combined total of these offenses constitutes the Index used for trend calculation purposes. Senegal will be compared with Japan (country with a low crime rate) and USA (country with a high crime rate). According to the INTERPOL data, for murder, the rate in 2000 was 0.33 per 100,000 population for Senegal, 1.10 for Japan, and 5.51 for USA. For rape, the rate in 2000 was 1.71 for Senegal, compared with 1.78 for Japan and 32.05 for USA. (Data for Senegal are for "sex offences (including rape)", to replace missing data for rape) For robbery, the rate in 2000 was 2.07 for Senegal, 4.08 for Japan, and 144.92 for USA. For aggravated assault, the rate in 2000 was 6.62 for Senegal, 23.78 for Japan, and 323.62 for USA. For burglary, the rate in 2000 was 2.47 for Senegal, 233.60 for Japan, and 728.42 for USA. The rate of larceny for 2000 was 46.98 for Senegal, 1401.26 for Japan, and 2475.27 for USA. The rate for motor vehicle theft in 2000 was 4.11 for Senegal, compared with 44.28 for Japan and 414.17 for USA. The rate for all index offenses combined was 64.29 for Senegal, compared with 1709.88 for Japan and 4123.97 for USA.

Between 1999 and 2000, according to INTERPOL data, the rate of murder decreased from 0.45 to 0.33 per 100,000 population, a decrease of 26.7%. The rate for rape decreased from 19.7 to 1.71, a decrease of 13.2%. The rate of robbery decreased from 3.19 to 2.07, a decrease of 35.1%. The rate for aggravated assault decreased from 8.82 to 6.62, a decrease of 24.9%. The rate for burglary increased from 2.08 to 2.47, an increase of 18.8%. The rate of larceny decreased from 58.69 to 46.98, a decrease of 20%. The rate of motor vehicle theft decreased from 8.2 to 4.11, a decrease of 50%. The rate of total index offenses decreased from 83.40 to 64.29, a decrease of 22.9%.

The armed forces are professional and generally disciplined. They traditionally remain aloof from politics and are firmly under civilian control. The paramilitary gendarmerie and the police are less professional and less disciplined. Some members of the security forces, the gendarmerie, and the police continued to commit serious human rights abuses.

There were no confirmed reports of political killings by government officials; however, government forces reportedly were responsible for extrajudicial killings, including some civilian deaths. The incidence of violence in the Casamance region increased during the year 2001, particularly in June and July, and reportedly resulted in some deaths. The military zone commander for the Casamance region made an effort during the year 2001 to reduce the number of human rights abuses committed by security forces under his command. During the year 2001, the press continued to report on frequent small arms attacks, raids, ambushes, and clashes with military forces by suspected MFDC gunmen, with continuing military and civilian fatalities.

On January 31, police shot and killed one student while forcibly dispersing a demonstration at the University of Dakar; the Government appointed a commission to investigate, and a police officer subsequently was arrested.

In three separate incidents in February and March, landmine explosions killed three soldiers in military vehicles in Casamance. In September two civilians died when their vehicle drove over a landmine 4 miles from Ziguinchor. On September 8, two persons were killed a landmine exploded in the Casamance area.

According to Amnesty International, in January 2000, near Nyassia military barracks, government security forces executed Momany Tendeng. Amnesty International also reported allegations that government forces executed Daniel Sambou and Denis Sambou in March 2000 and forced civilians to bury them. A government investigation reportedly was ongoing at year's end 2001.

No investigation or other action was taken in the 1999 case in which security forces in the department of Bigona shot a young man mistaken for a rebel.

On February 16, suspected MFDC gunmen stopped four buses carrying civilians in Sediou district and stole their belongings. The gunmen then forced 14 bus passengers to lie down on the ground and shot and killed them. On March 2, rebels attacked a passenger bus close to the village of Belaye, near the border with the Gambia, robbed passengers, and killed seven of them.

On many occasions, vigilante groups and mobs lynched suspected thieves. This type of mob violence generally was unpunished in the past; however, on several occasions during the year 2001, police arrested instigators of mob violence. In January two persons were convicted of killing a suspected criminal.

There were no reports of politically motivated disappearances during the year 2001.

According to Amnesty International, in March 2000, government security forces in Kabrousee arrested Jean Dacougna, a 40-year-old man with mental disabilities. The man remained unaccounted for, and there reportedly was no investigation into his disappearance by year's end 2001.

In September 2000, a group of Casamance professionals helped family members of two missing persons, Alexis Etienne Diatta and Jean Diandy, file legal complaints against security forces for abduction. The families of both Diatta and Diandy reported the disappearances to civilian authorities, who were unsuccessful in finding either person. Government investigations into both disappearances reportedly were underway; however, no information on the progress of the investigations was available by year's end 2001.

In 1999 there were several credible reports of disappearances in connection with the conflict in the Casamance. In its 1999 annual report, the African Assembly for the Defense of Human Rights (RADDHO) accused security forces of responsibility for the disappearance of seven civilians in June, and three suspected rebels in April of that year. These persons remained unaccounted for at year's end 2001.

There are credible reports that police and gendarmes often beat suspects during questioning and pretrial detention, in spite of constitutional prohibitions against such treatment, and the problem remained a serious public concern. Unlike in the previous year, there were no press reports of torture perpetrated by the police.

On January 31, police used tear gas to disperse forcibly a student demonstration at the University of Dakar; there were no reported injuries but one student was shot and killed.

Despite stronger legal provisions against torture put in place in 1997, those cases that are pursued often take years before a final judgment is reached.

On February 7, in the village of Sare Dembo Diao, close to the border with Guinea-Bissau, a group of 23 suspected MFDC rebels captured and reportedly tortured local herdsman Abdoulaye Mballo to reveal information concerning the position of government security forces. The rebels allegedly struck Mballo repeatedly with their rifle butts before cutting off his left ear.

In 2000 a panel of judges in the Court of Criminal Appeals dropped charges of torture and complicity in crimes against humanity made against former Chadian president Hissene Habre, arguing that the court has no jurisdiction in the case. Attorneys representing the coalition of human rights organizations that initiated the lawsuit appealed the decision before the Court of Final Appeals. On March 20, the Court of Final Appeals upheld the lower court's ruling, which closed the case in Senegal.

The Constitution prohibits arbitrary invasion of the home, and there was little government interference in the private lives of citizens. The law requires search warrants, and only judges may issue them. In past years, during high profile or politically charged investigations, police often proceeded without the required search warrants; however, there were no reports of this during the year 2001.

MFDC rebels sought to extort supplies and money from civilians. On several occasions during the year 2001, MFDC rebels stopped passenger buses and robbed passengers.

The Constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention; however, the authorities at times arbitrarily arrested and detained persons.

The law specifies that warrants, issued by judges, are required for arrests; however, laws also grant the police broad powers to detain prisoners for lengthy periods. Police officers may hold without charge a person suspected of a crime for 48 hours after arrest and for up to 96 hours if ordered by a public prosecutor. This period may be doubled in the case of crimes against the security of the State. The prosecutor decides whether to forward the case to an investigating judge who may open an investigation. At this point, the suspects are charged preliminarily and may be held or released on their own recognizance. During the initial 48 hours of detention the accused has no access to family or an attorney, but has the right to demand a medical exam. The accused has the right to an attorney after this initial period of detention. There is a system of bail, but it rarely was used. The accused may be held in custody for 6 months, and the investigating magistrate can certify that an additional 6-month extension is required. Such extensions may be reviewed by a court on appeal. Judges have the right to order release pending trial without the prosecutor's consent.

Police rarely are prosecuted for violations of arrest and detention procedures, and the authorities may detain a prisoner for long periods of time while they investigate and build a case against a suspect. The authorities routinely hold prisoners in custody unless and until a court demands their release. Despite the 6-month limitation on detention, the time between the charging phase and trial averages 2 years. In a 1998 effort to improve the administration of justice, the Government recruited 48 law school graduates to be trained as magistrates over a 2-year period. In 1999 approximately 90 graduated judges were assigned to different courts nationwide, which allowed for the opening of judicial districts in all 30 administrative districts and access to the judicial system by citizens in the countryside. There were reports that the initiative resulted in faster trials, particularly outside the Dakar area; however, no statistics were available by year's end 2001.

On August 18, the Government's Division of Criminal Investigation questioned for several hours Alioune Tine, the head of RADDHO; no formal charges were made against him.

On January 22, the Dakar criminal court sentenced two members of a vigilante group to 5 years' hard labor. In 1997 the defendants broke into the house of a suspected criminal, and then abducted and beat him to death.

The military zone commander for the Casamance region made an effort during the year 2001 to reduce the number of human rights abuses committed by security forces under his command, and human rights NGO's confirmed that there were significantly fewer complaints of arbitrary arrests, lengthy detention, and abuse during detention; however, there were no statistics available at year's end 2001.

Human rights NGO's in Casamance reported a decrease in the number of detentions of suspected MFDC rebels reported by local families; however, in January Amnesty International reported that 30 MFDC sympathizers remained in detention in Dakar and Kolda without trial. According to Amnesty International, the sympathizers were arrested in 2000 because of their Diola ethnic origin; they were charged with compromising state security, but no evidence was provided of their involvement in any acts of violence. Following the signing of a peace accord with the MFDC on March 16, on March 19, the Government released 16 of these prisoners; the remaining 14 prisoners remained in detention at year's end 2001.

Following fighting in the Casamance in 1999, the military rounded up 15 persons with Diola names on suspicion of involvement with the MFDC. All but three of these prisoners were released within 4 days; however, those three remained unaccounted for at year's end 2001.

In January 1999, the National Assembly passed legislation to eliminate the law that held "acts or maneuvers aimed at casting discredit on government institutions" as criminal offenses punishable by imprisonment of 3 to 5 years and a fine of up to $2,500 (1.5 million CFA francs); the legislation later was implemented. Legal experts considered this provision to be a legal instrument that the Government could use to jail political dissenters. On a few occasions in the past, the Government had jailed opposition leaders under this provision, apparently on the basis of their political activities.

The Constitution prohibits forced exile, and it is not used.

The legal system of Senegal is based on the French civil law system. The Constitution provides for a judiciary independent of the executive, the legislature, and the armed forces; however, in practice it is subject to government influence and pressure. Magistrates are vulnerable to outside pressures due to low pay, poor working conditions, and family and political ties. Also, the Minister of Justice and subordinate authorities have extensive authority to influence judicial procedures by keeping the accused in pretrial detention.

The legal system is based on French civil law and is composed of ordinary courts and a number of higher and special courts, including the Council of State, the Constitutional Council, and the Court of Final Appeal. These courts remain understaffed, and many of the special courts, including the one that deals with unlawful enrichment and other courts that try government officials for treason and malfeasance, are dormant. Muslims have the right to choose customary law or civil law for certain civil cases, such as those concerning inheritance and divorce. However, customary law decisions are rendered by civil court judges. There is a separate system of military courts for members of the armed forces and the gendarmerie. The right of appeal exists in all courts except military courts and the special Unlawful Enrichment Court. Military courts may try civilians only if the civilians are involved with military personnel who violate military law.

In principle the accused is innocent until proven guilty. Trials are public, and defendants have the right to be present in court, to confront witnesses, to present evidence, and to have an attorney. However, some defendants are denied legal assistance at public expense due to a lack of funding. Evidentiary hearings may be closed to the public and the press, but the defendant and counsel have access to all evidence presented and may introduce their own evidence before the investigating judge decides to refer the case to the prosecutor for trial. A panel of judges presides over ordinary courts for both civil and criminal cases; in criminal cases, citizens also serve on the panel.

The Minister of Justice has taken steps to eliminate the backlog of cases in the judiciary system. In 2000 the Government adopted legislation for the appointment of judges in charge of monitoring the implementation of court decisions and for the establishment of alternative justice mechanisms, including a "maison de la justice" to be staffed by voluntary jurists--usually retired judges or attorneys. However, by year's end 2001, local governments reportedly did not have the resources to implement the system mandated in the legislation.

There were no reports of political prisoners.

Prison conditions were poor. Prisons remained overcrowded, and food and health care were inadequate; however, there have been no reports of deaths in prison as a result of these conditions. Juveniles are housed separately from adults. Pretrial detainees usually were held separately from convicted prisoners, as required by law; however, on occasion pretrial detainees were detained with convicted prisoners due to limited space.

The Government permits prison visits by independent human rights monitors. Local and international human rights groups such as RADDHO, the National Organization for Human Rights (ONDH), the International Committee of the Red Cross, and the International Prison Observatory occasionally visit prisons.

There are credible reports that domestic violence against women, usually wife beating, is common. According to a study funded by the Canadian Center for International Research and Development (CECI) focusing on the capital Dakar and on the city of Kaolack, 87 percent of 515 women interviewed had suffered from some form of domestic violence. The study also showed that domestic violence was more widespread in Dakar than in Kaolack. Police usually do not intervene in domestic disputes, and most persons are reluctant to go outside the family for redress. In contrast the law and society view rape as a very serious crime, and the law stipulates that persons convicted of rape may be imprisoned for up to 10 years. If the victim is a minor, her age is considered an aggravating circumstance. Rape trials often result in convictions. According to the criminal law, sexual harassment is a crime punishable by imprisonment of up to 3 years and a fine of $650 (500,000 CFA francs). The legislation also increased the potential fine for domestic violence to $650 (500,000 CFA francs) and the length of imprisonment for domestic violence to 5 years. Several women's groups have formed to address this problem.

On September 8, supporters of women's rights marched through Dakar to protest violence against women and the impunity with which these acts are carried out. Vivian Wade, the wife of the President, was among the demonstrators.

Female genital mutilation (FGM), which is condemned widely by international health experts as damaging to both physical and psychological health, is not practiced by the country's largest ethnic group, the Wolofs (representing 43 percent of the population), but it is performed on girls belonging to some other ethnic groups. Infibulation, the most extreme and dangerous form of FGM, is practiced by members of the Toucouleur and Peulh ethnic groups, particularly those in rural areas. Recent studies estimated that between 5 and 20 percent of girls undergo FGM.

In 1999 the Government passed legislation banning FGM. The law made FGM a criminal offense, carrying a jail term ranging from 6 months to 5 years for persons directly practicing FGM or ordering it to be carried out on a third person. Most human rights organizations considered the law to be a decisive step towards greater protection of women. However, a few women's rights activists criticized the new legislation because they perceived it as being dictated by Western donors. A few Muslim religious leaders also criticized the law because they consider FGM to be a religious practice. While the Government sponsors programs to educate women regarding the dangers of FGM, other critics of the new law contended that these programs should have been more widespread prior to implementation of the ban.

In April 2000, inhabitants of 26 villages on the Sine Saloum Islands publicly announced their decision to ban the practice of FGM in their communities. The decision was the result of an educational campaign initiated by the Government with the assistance of a number of international and domestic NGO's. Since July 1997, approximately 400 villages nationwide have banned FGM among their inhabitants.

On October 31, in the village of Dabo (Kolda region), 8 persons were convicted and sentenced to 4-month prison terms for the excision of 18 girls between the ages of 2 and 5. On November 24, in Velingara (Kolda region), a mother of two and an FGM practitioner were arrested for the October excision of the mother's two daughters; trials for the two women were pending at year's end 2001.

Despite constitutional protections, women faced extensive societal discrimination, especially in rural areas where Islamic and traditional customs, including polygyny, and Islamic rules of inheritance are strongest, and women generally were confined to traditional roles. By law women have the right to choose when and whom they marry; however, in some areas, traditional practice can restrict a woman's choice. The minimum age of consent to marry is 21 for males and 16 for females. Under certain conditions, a judge may grant a special dispensation to a person under age. The law was not enforced in some communities, where marriages occasionally were arranged. Under family law, women may or may not consent to polygynous unions when contracting a marriage; however, once in polygynous unions women do not have the right of notification or approval prior to a subsequent marriage. In the countryside, women performed much of the subsistence farming and child rearing and have limited educational opportunities. Although the Government has committed itself to equalizing male and female primary school enrollment, there still was much social discrimination against allowing women educational opportunities. Only 23 percent of women over 15 years of age are literate, while the rate for men over age 15 is 43 percent.

The Ministry of Family and Infancy, formerly the Ministry of Family, Social Action, and National Solidarity, established in 1990, is responsible for promoting children's welfare. Numerous organizations assist the Ministry in support of children's rights, including the Ministry of Health, which maintained a nationwide effort focusing on child survival. The Government continued to increase the number of classrooms and encourage more children, particularly females, to enter and stay in school. The law requires that all children attend school until age 12, but this is not enforced due to a shortage of schools; 68 percent of boys and 55 percent of girls are enrolled in school. Organized street begging by children who are Koranic students results in a significant interruption of their education, and many children work in their family's fields.

FGM is performed primarily on girls.

In 1999 the Government passed a law mandating longer jail terms of up to 10 years for convicted pedophiles.

The law prohibits trafficking in persons; however, there were occasional reports that women were trafficked during the year 2001.

On August 28, authorities stopped 100 young Senegalese women from boarding a charter flight to Libya. One Senegalese and two French nationals of Senegalese origin were arrested and charged with organizing an international prostitution ring. In September authorities questioned them amidst allegations that the young women were being sent to Libya to work as prostitutes. In October the Senegalese national was released on bail, and in November the two French nationals were released on bail; trials were pending for all three at year's end 2001.

In 2000 police arrested a Nigerian citizen who had lured a Nigerian woman to Dakar and confined her in a house with three other Nigerian women. According to the police, the Nigerian man raped and beat the women. No further information was available on the case at year's end 2001.

Senegal continues to be a transit country for drugs and unfortunately has, begun to become a consumer nation. Senegal rests at the crossroads of air and sea ways between the Asian drug producing countries and the main consuming countries of Europe and North America, making it a favorable location for drug trafficking. Oakar Leopold Sedar Senghor International Airport is a key stop in West Africa for anyone transiting the continent. The port of Dakar, the other major point of entry into Senegal, as well as the Gambian border and the express train from Mali, are other routes of drugs into Senegal. Most of the traffickers caught at the airport are English speakers, including Nigerians who swallow cocaine or heroin prepared as small balls. In 1998, 3.7 kilograms of cocaine balls were seized. Most of the people caught have come from Brazil via Lisbon. The use of female drug traffickers is becoming more common here.

Senegal has an old tradition of growing cannabis. Its cultivation is much more lucrative than other traditional agriculture products. In the southern region of Casamance, where the government is fighting an armed insurgency, rebels have been relying on drug trafficking and the local populace for support. In that area farmers have often abandoned the growing of traditional crops for the growing and sale of cannabis, which local insurgents then handle for transport and distribution.

In late December 1997, the Senegalese government with the assistance of the United Nations Drug Control Program adopted a national plan of action to fight illicit drug abuse and trafficking to be implemented over a period of three years (1998-2000). It is estimated that this national plan of action will cost approximately 4.4 million dollars to implement. In principle, the plan is to be financed by the national budget and by international donors, both bilateral and multilateral. Senegal, however, does not yet have the funding to implement the program. However, a new criminal code does empower the Senegalese government to combat illicit drug trafficking, including such areas as money laundering, through seizure of benefits earned from the sale and trafficking of illegal narcotics, and authorizes the use of modern methods of investigation, such as telephone taps and use of computer data and increases the penalties to a maximum of 10 years of imprisonment.

In 1998, an operation called "Cannabis IV" was launched. This led to the destruction of cannabis fields with the following results:

21 fields of cannabis were destroyed;

27.3 tons of raw cannabis was seized;

8 tons of treated cannabis was seized;

590 kilograms of seeds were burnt;

2 nurseries were destroyed.

A total weight of 7.3 kilograms of hard drugs (heroin and cocaine) were seized from drug traffickers between 1997 and 1998. Senegal also reports a seizure of 4,135 pills of psychotropic substances in 1998. In addition, 42 tons 292 kilograms of cannabis were incinerated on June 26, 1998 on the occasion of the World Day Against Drugs.

Only a few NGOs, with minimal help from the government, have been active in the fields of prevention and awareness for potential users. A center, dedicated to awareness and information about illegal substances, called the Jacques Chirac Center was created in a suburb of Dakar, financed by the French government. Another is planned for the regional capital of St. Louis.

In the near future, drug awareness and prevention educational modules will be included in public school academic programs. The Ministry of Education has planned several training sessions to train instructors on how to teach/moderate these drug awareness modules to local children. Senegalese authorities are also planning the creation of local shelters for drug addicts. Senegal is a party to the 1988 UN Drug Convention. Senegal also has in-force extradition treaties with Cape Verde, the Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Morocco, Tunisia, and France. There are no extradition or mutual legal assistance treaties in force between the U.S. and Senegal.