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BY MICHAEL A. ARNZEN
Many students, teachers, writers, and research scholars see the Internet as a vast virtual library full of books, essays, and articles. And in many ways the Net is like a library of resources that students can browse (surf) or borrow (download), thanks to that handy universal library card we call a modem. And unlike a stuffy campus library, there are no huge tomes to carry or overdue fines to pay.
But there are two problems with thinking of the Internet as a virtual library. For one thing, the documents on the Internet, unlike the books in the library, are difficult to catalog. The Internet's holdings change every minute of the day, taxing even the best search engines. Another problem with the virtual library metaphor is that many Internet "books" can disappear off the shelf with the touch of a Webmaster's delete key, leaving the student in a quandry if he or she wants to borrow the book again--or worse, leading to charges of poor ethics if a professor can't verify a source cited in a research paper.
So what do you do if you want to include online information in research papers? What is the proper way to cite a Web page or e-mail message?
As a college teacher I am asked questions like these all the time--even by other teachers. My answers tend to be complex because there are no uniform standards for citing Internet-based sources in a research paper. Like the Net itself, the rules for citing its resources in academic work are in a constant state of flux.
Indeed, there is an inherent paradox in referring to a "virtual" source for credibility in a research paper: The document might be authoritative, but it doesn't really "exist" because it hasn't been permanently inscribed into the ruling medium of documentation--namely, paper. Many professors still believe that until ideas are on paper they aren't considered legitimately published.
But there are some fail-safe strategies students can use to take advantage of the information the virtual library has to offer. Until those who provide information on the Internet and those who frequently refer to it agree upon uniform standards, these survival tips will help safeguard your Internet research.
First, save or print all documents you intend to cite. Just as you might photocopy or take notes from a book or magazine, so, too, should you save any electronic documents that might later be useful in your research. Even though the tendency when Web surfing is to bookmark and run, you should save any documents to disk that seem potentially useful. Then print out the documents you cite in your paper, and make sure you keep backup files on a floppy disk.
The reasons for doing this are self-evident: Not only to have a backup in case an Internet document disappears, but also as proof that you have cited an authentic source if it is ever called into question. Saving a document also makes direct quotation easier via copy-and-paste methods.
Refer to a printed source, if available. Many Web documents are not original, but are electronic copies of texts that have already been published in printed form. Most magazine- or newspaper-run Web pages and Gopher sites simply include reprinted articles or abridged essays from printed issues as a means of getting the curious to subscribe. Most of the text on the Internet was originally published elsewhere--including the public-domain electronic books at Project Gutenberg (gopher to Iocust.cic.net), statistical reports at the U.S. Census server, and TV news stories at Journal Graphics (telnet to pac.carl.org and choose #67 from the main menu). This means you probably have access to the original source in your campus library--or through its interlibrary loan office. Although this may seem to defeat the purpose of using the Net for research, you should always opt for citing the primary source, not only because it is the "original" version, but because it might include more information than an abridged electronic version.
I am not saying that printed text is inherently better than electronic text. Indeed, sometimes text on the Internet is more up to date than a printed book's or magazine's. But you won't know unless you compare the sources.
Moreover, referring to a printed source makes your reader's job easier. Because source citation is primarily a way of helping readers find more information about the topic you've researched, you'll earn a reader's trust by putting in extra effort to cite the most easily referenced version of textual material.
Opt for signed articles whenever possible. One of the best--and worst--elements of the Internet is that anyone can publish anything. On the plus side, you'll find sources on the Net you probably wouldn't find any other way. It also means you can find not only texts, but people who share your research interests. You can tap their minds for ideas or sources you may have over-looked by e-mail or links they have generously posted on the Web.
On the other hand, not every source that turns up in a Webcrawler search will be reliable. The same, obviously, is true of any computer search of a library's holdings. In either case, a judgment call is necessary on your part to decide which sources are the most authoritative and trustworthy.
One way to gauge whether a source is reliable is to compare the author's claims and evidence to other sources that you've encountered. When in doubt, your best bet is to choose only articles that include a byline signature tag that lists the author's name along with the title. If the article includes no author's name, the text might not be reliable. This doesn't mean that every unsigned text on the Net is untrustworthy. Sometimes essays get linked in a way that obscures their authorship, and bylines may appear in strange places (at the end of texts or in a table of contents, for example). Make sure you read through the entire document.
If you can't find a byline, politely ask the Webmaster for the source of the information, explaining that you'd like to use it for a college paper. You usually can find a Webmaster's e-mail address near the bottom of the home page of the site you're searching. If this is unavailable, write to the site's postmaster.
Once you find an author's name, you can do follow-up research on his or her reputation. You may be able to find a biography or other documents he or she has written. Because many Web pages include email links to the authors of articles, you can email the author and ask for the best version of his or her essay. This may sound like a lot of needless work, but it really isn't. Quoting an unsigned source is like quoting a ghost. And not all ghosts are friendly.
Perhaps the largest issue surrounding Internet source citation is style--the proper way to list bibliographical references. The rules for citing Internet sources can differ according to your topic and audience, and in some cases they haven't been written yet. If there are rules, they are constantly being revised by those who write the style books. If you feel confused or frustrated with the rules of documentation style, don't be; chances are your reader is, too.
Ask your professor early in the term which style he or she prefers for source citation. It's a good idea to ask if the professor has a set of guidelines for citing Internet sources. Because many professors aren't as knowledgeable as their students about the Internet, make sure you get permission in advance to include Internet material in your research.
While style guides vary, the two major guides for college writing come from the Modem Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA). The MLA Handbook for Writers of' Research Papers applies to all writing in the humanities. The Publication Manual of the APA is more commonly used for papers in the natural and social sciences.
Whether you are citing the Internet in your essays or not, it is important that you have the latest edition of these books to, account for recent changes in style. Your local college bookstore should have copies.
The MLA Handbook (currently is in its fourth edition) includes some basic information for citing online databases. The APA Manual doesn't yet address Internet citations, although it soon will. For now, the best style books for citing the Net are on the Internet itself. You probably should footnote the site you used for your style guide.
Most writers--especially those whose research is in the humanities will follow MLA style. See Janice Walker's MLA Style Citations of Electronic Sources, which is the most authoritative version because it is endorsed by the Alliance for Computers and Writing. Walker's style guide includes information on how to properly cite mainstream and alternative Internet sources (including MOOs, Usenet articles, and personal e-mail) and offers clear examples. As far as I can tell, Walker's site is the most frequently accessed style guide on the Net, thus is most likely to become the standard for the next MLA Handbook.
Another excellent site is the extremely thorough Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet by Andrew Harnack and Gene Kleppinger. One problem the authors point out is the ambiguity regarding dates in Net citations: Should you document the date of access or date of publication? The answer? Cite both dates because of the "invisible revisability" of Web documents.
No matter which style guide you follow, Beyond the MLA Handbook is worth reading in its entirety. Both style sites include links to other guides on the Net, including the Gopher-housed style guides at the University of Chicago (gopher to gopher uuiuc.edu and select Libraries and Reference information, the Writers Workshop Online Handbook) that include all the basic rules for both MLA and APA style.
For science writing, you'll most likely prefer to use APA style. If you can't find what you need at the University of Chicago's site, try the APA Crib sheet.
While The APA Manual doesn't adequately address Internet texts yet, there are proposals online for changes. T. Land's WEAPAS (Web Extensions to APA Style) proposal includes guidelines for citing Internet sources in scientific essays.
Xia Li and Nancy Crane also have included an embellished APA style (as well as one for the MLA) in Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic Information. This book is in the running for becoming a standard Internet style guide on campus. But MLA and APA style do not account for all forms of writing. If you write history papers, for example, you might want to draw upon the essay, "A Brief Citation Guide for Internet Sources in History and the Humanities," by Melvin E. Page. This is a popular reference guide because it embellishes the style recommended by the often cited Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, by Kate L. Turabian.
Those working in the field of medicine can refer to Jeff Becklehimer's "How Do You Cite URLs in a Bibliography?" And if you still haven't found what you're looking for, try George H. Hoemann's Electronic Style-The Final Frontier, which includes an overview of style guides and a good survey of the documentation strategies.
If you prefer your Internet style guide authority to come from the Internet itself, try Michael Quinion's Citing Online Sources.
If your research papers end up on the Internet, which is becoming more and more common as the virtual library becomes a virtual classroom (see "Earn a Master's, Virtually;" p.66), it makes good sense not only to include your bibliographic references at the end of your paper, but to include hypertext links that connect directly to the site of your source.
There are two places to include such links: in the text (linking the author/date citation in parentheses) and in the source listing in your bibliography. HTML authors also can include "index" links for comments or citations that normally would appear in printed form as footnotes or endnotes.
Regardless of how you link your bibliographical references, all writers who are publishing their work on the Net should read the classic "Elements of E-Text Style" by John E. Goodwin.
When all is said and done, the Golden Rule applies to academic writing: Cite others with the same respect you would like to be cited.
Below is a sample bibliography styled according to Beyond the MLA Handbook: Documenting Electronic Sources on the Internet. Sources are listed in alphabetical order by author.
Author. <author's e-mail address>. "Subject Line." Date of post. Personal e-mail. (Date read).
Web Site
Author (if known). "Title" (main title if applicable) Last date updated or revised [if known]<URL> (date accessed).
FTP
Author (if known). "Title of Document" (Date of publication [if available]. FTP address (date accessed).
Gopher
Author (if known). "Title of Document." Any print publication information (if applicable) Gopher address (date accessed).
Usenet-News
Author. <author's e-mail address> "'Subject Line." Date of publication. <newsgroup> (date accessed).
Mailing List
Author [if known]. <author's e-mail address> "Subject Line" Date of post. <mailing list address> (date accessed).
Michael A. Arnren (mikea@darkwing.uoregon.edu) teaches English literature at the University of Oregon. He is author of the horror novel Grave Markings.
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Last Updated: 12/7/97 by Dan Spiegelberg