Some Notes for the 1^st Exam

1. An instrumental good is something sought for its good effects, not for the activity itself. Example: Paying your taxes to keep you out of trouble with the IRS. An ultimate good is one that is sought just for itself, for its own sake. Example: pleasure. People don't usually seek pleasure because it has some good effect beyond the pleasure itself, but it is probably possible to do so. In that case, pleasure would be both an ultimate (or intrinsic) good, and an instrumental good. A complete good (according to Aristotle) is a good which is always intrinsic, never instrumental. He says that happiness is the only example of a complete good. Happiness has various explanations in Aristotle: living well and doing well, activity in accord with virtue over a complete life. Study plays a key role in happiness. A virtue of something is what makes it perform its function well. The function of human being is activity in accord with reason--we are essentially rational animals. Two kinds of human virtues: virtues of character (courage, generosity, justice) and virtues of thought (understanding, prudence, wisdom).

2. Two common mistakes about utilitarianism: (A) "Utilitarianism says that what produces the most pleasure minus pain for you is right." The error here is in the words "for you." Utilitarians count the pleasure and pain that results from an action for everyone who is effected, not just one person. (B) "Utilitarianism says that an action is right if it causes more pleasure than pain." The error here is that utilitarian says the right thing is the one that causes the most pleasure minus pain among the things that could be done if they were chosen. The best thing might be pretty bad, that is, it might cause much more pain than pleasure. It is still right because it is the best thing that can be done in the circumstances.

3. Two concepts of class morality: (A) The right thing to do is what benefits a certain class (Mao's idea) (B) A point of view that is likely to be part of a typical outlook for members of a certain class (Nietzsche's idea).

4. An (apparent) contradiction in Nietzsche's argument: He rejects "the belief that the strong man is free to be weak and the bird of prey to be a lamb—for thus they gain the right to make the bird of prey accountable for being a bird of prey." He denies that a "triumphant monster" can be different than he is, and concludes that he is not accountable (morally speaking) for being a monster. Although Nietzsche will not condemn someone practicing the noble morality, he condemns Christians, Jews, socialists, etc., who advocate the values of the slaver morality, like equal rights. Why are they accountable?

KANT ON KINDS OF OBLIGATION