This section of the Swimming Science Journal contains abstracts of articles concerned with biomechanics of swimming. As articles are located their abstracts are appended to the end of the list.

1. DRAG FORCES ARE LARGE IN CRAWL STROKE PROPULSION

   Wood, T. C. (1988). A fluid dynamic analysis of the propulsive potential of the hand and forearm in swimming. In J. Terauds & W. Bedingfield (Eds.), International series on sport sciences, SWIMMING III, Vol. 8. Baltimore: University Park Press.

2. SWIMMING EFFICIENCY IS VELOCITY DEPENDENT

   Toussaint, H. M., Knops, W., De Groot, G., & Hollander, A. P. (1990). The mechanical efficiency of front crawl swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22, 402-408.

3. PHYSIOLOGY AND SKILLS DIFFERENTIATE SWIMMING PERFORMANCE LEVELS

   Chatard, J. C., Collomp, C., Maglischo, E., & Maglischo, C. (1990). Swimming skill and stroking characteristics of front crawl swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 156-161.

4. LONG LIMBS AND BIG HANDS AND FEET ARE AN ADVANTAGE IN SWIMMING

   Grimston, S. K., & Hay, J. G. (1986). Relationships among anthropometric and stroking characteristics of college swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 18, 60-68.

5. STROKE RATE AND LENGTH

   Kennedy, P., Brown, P., Chengalur, S. N., & Nelson, R. C. (1990). Analysis of male and female Olympic swimmers in the 100-meter events. International Journal of Sport Biomechanics, 6, 187-197.

6. PULL WIDE IN RELATION TO THE TORSO

   Higgs, S. L., & Gallagher, H. (1979). The effect of arm position on strength of pull in freestyle and backstroke. Swimming Technique, 16, 24-27.

7. FREELY CHOSEN STROKE RATES ARE BEST

   Swaine, I., & Reilly, T. (1983). The freely-chosen swimming stroke rate in a maximal swim on a biokinetic swim bench. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 15, 370-375.

8. STROKE DISTANCE IS IMPORTANT

   Toussaint, H. M. (1988). Differences in propelling efficiency between competitive and triathlon swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 22, 409-415.

9. STEP START HAS ADVANTAGES OVER CONVENTIONAL START

   Gambrel, D. W., Blanke, D., Thigpen, K., & Mellion, M. B. (1991). A biomechanical comparison of two relay starts in swimming. Journal of Swimming Research, 7, 5-9.

10. BEND ARMS TOO MUCH RATHER THAN TOO LITTLE IN PROPULSION

    Rouard, A. H., & Billat, R. P. (1990). Influences of sex and level of performance on freestyle stroke: an electromyography and kinematic study. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 11, 150-155.

11. CHILDREN LESS POWERFUL THAN ADULTS

    Vandewalle, H., Peres, G., Sourabie, B., Stouvenal, O., & Monod, H. (1989). Force-velocity relationship and maximal aerobic power during cranking exercise in young swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 10, 439-445.

12. FEMALES USE BETTER TECHNIQUE

    Cappaert, J. M., Kolmogorov, S., Walker, J., Skinner, J., Rodriguez, F., & Gordon, B. J. (1996). Active drag measurements in elite US swimmers. Medicine and Science in Exercise and Sports, 28(5), Supplement abstract 279.

13. STROKE ENTRIES ARE THE MAJOR CAUSE OF SHOULDER INJURIES

    Yanai, T., & Hay, J. G. (1966). The mechanics of shoulder impingement in front-crawl swimming. Medicine and Science in Exercise and Sports, 28(5), Supplement abstract 1092.

14. STROKE RATES AT TRAINING ARE NOT RACE-SPECIFIC

    Craig, A. B., Jr., & Pendergast, D. R. (1979). Relationships of stroke rate, distance per stroke, and velocity in competitive swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 11, 278-283.

15. SLOW KICKING DOES NOT TRAIN ANYTHING BUT IT PROVIDES VALUABLE RECOVERY

    Mookerjee, S., Bibi, K. W., Kenney, G. A., & Cohen, L. (1995). Relationship between isokinetic strength, flexibility, and flutter kicking speed in female collegiate swimmers. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 9(2), 71-74.

16. SHOULDERS AND HIPS ROLL TOGETHER IN CRAWL STROKE

    Keppenham, B. C., & Yanai, T. (1995). Limb motions and body roll in skilled and unskilled front crawl swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(5), Supplement abstract 1299.

17. FEMALES EMPHASIZE TECHNIQUE

    Dutto, D. J., & Cappaert, J. M. (1994). Biomechanical and physiological differences between males and females during freestyle swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 26(5), Supplement abstract 1098.

18. EXCESSIVE USE OF INTERNAL ROTATORS LEADS TO SHOULDER PROBLEMS

    Ruwe, P A., Pink, M., Jobe, F. W., Perry, J., & Scovazzo, M. L. (1994). The normal and the painful shoulders during the breaststroke. The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 22, 789-796.

19. HOW MODELING SWIMMING MOVEMENTS CAN LEAD TO DUBIOUS CONCLUSIONS

    Payton, C. J., & Mullineaux, D. R. (1996). Effect of body roll on hand velocity in freestyle swimming. In J. P. Troup, A. P. Hollander, D. Strasse, S. W. Trappe, J. M. Cappaert, & T. A. Trappe (Eds.), Biomechanics and medicine in swimming VII (pp. 59-63). London: E & FN Spon.

20. SWIMMER'S SHOULDER FIRST EMERGES IN EXCESSIVE FATIGUE

    Stocker, D., Pink, M., & Jobe, F. W. (1996). Comparison of shoulder injury in collegiate and masters level swimmers. In J. P. Troup, A. P. Hollander, D. Strasse, S. W. Trappe, J. M. Cappaert, & T. A. Trappe (Eds.), Biomechanics and medicine in swimming VII (pp. 90-95). London: E & FN Spon.

21. SHOULDER MUSCLE USE IN CRAWL STROKE DIFFERS BETWEEN EACH SWIMMER

    Monteil, K. M., Rouard, A. H., Dufour, A.B., Cappaert, J. M., & Troup, J. P. (1996). Swimmers' shoulder: EMG of the rotators during a flume test. In J. P. Troup, A. P. Hollander, D. Strasse, S. W. Trappe, J. M. Cappaert, & T. A. Trappe (Eds.), Biomechanics and medicine in swimming VII (pp. 83-89). London: E & FN Spon.

22. CONSISTENT STROKE LENGTH IS A FEATURE OF BETTER 100-m SWIMMERS

    Chollet, D., Pelayo, P., Delaplace, C., Tourny, C., & Sidney, M. (1997). Stroking characteristic variations in the 100-m freestyle for males of differing skill. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85, 167-177.

23. EVEN WHEN LIFT IS PROPOSED AS BEING THE MAJOR PROPULSIVE FORCES IN THEORETICAL MODELS ITS CONTRIBUTION IS NOT VALIDATED

    Berger, M. A., Hollander, A. P., & de Groot, G. (1997). Technique and energy losses in front crawl swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 29, 1491-1498.

24. POOL LENGTH ALTERS SWIMMING SKILLS AND PHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

    Keskinen, K. L., Keskinen, O. P., & Mero, A. (1996). Effects of pool length on biomechanical performance in front crawl swimming. In J. P. Troup, A. P. Hollander, D. Strasse, S. W. Trappe, J. M. Cappaert, & T. A. Trappe (Eds.), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VII (pp. 216-220). London: E & FN Spon.

25. AEROBIC AND ANAEROBIC TECHNIQUES ARE DIFFERENT

    Wakayoshi, K., D'Acquisto, J. D., Cappaert, J. M., & Troup, J. P. (1996). Relationship between metabolic parameters and stroking technique characteristics in front crawl. In J. P. Troup, A. P. Hollander, D. Strasse, S. W. Trappe, J. M. Cappaert, & T. A. Trappe (Eds.), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VII (pp. 152-158). London: E & FN Spon.

26. CHAMPIONS AND NON-CHAMPIONS DIFFER IN TECHNIQUE MECHANICS

    Cappaert, J. M., Pease, D. L., & Troup, J. P. (1996). Biomechanical highlights of world champion swimmers. In J. P. Troup, A. P. Hollander, D. Strasse, S. W. Trappe, J. M. Cappaert, & T. A. Trappe (Eds.), Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming VII (pp. 76-80). London: E & FN Spon.

27. HYPERMOBILE JOINTS AND POOR TECHNIQUE CAUSE MOST INJURIES IN SWIMMERS

    Kenal, K. A., & Knapp, L. D. (1996). Rehabilitation of injuries in competitive swimmers. Sports Medicine, 22, 337-347.

28. TECHNIQUE ITEMS FROM THE VIII INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM OF BIOMECHANICS AND MEDICINE IN SWIMMING

    Stewart, A., & Takaqi, H. (1998). Making a splash. Sportscience News, September-October. [http://www.sportsci.org/news9809/isbms.html].

29. STROKE LENGTH FACTORS DIFFER BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES

    Cappaert, J. M., & Gordon, B. J. (1998). Technique variables of elite level freestyle swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30(5), Supplement abstract 156.

30. DISTANCE PER STROKE AND vVO2max HAVE LOW RELATIONSHIPS WITH 50 AND 500-YARD SWIMMING PERFORMANCES

    Nagle, E. F., Robertson, R. J., Zoeller, R. F., Moyna, N. M., & Goss, F. L. (1998). Prediction of swimming performance times using a mixed model of physiological and stroke variables. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 30(5), Supplement abstract 279.

31. SPRINT CRAWL KICK FACILITATES ARM PROPULSION WHILE NOT BEING ACTUALLY PROPULSIVE

    Deschodt, V. J. (1999). Relative contribution of arms and legs in humans to propulsion in 25-m sprint front-crawl swimming. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 80, 192-199.

32. TRACK START IS SUPERIOR TO THE GRAB START

    Juergens, C. A., Rose, D. J., Smith, G. A., & Calder, C. A. (1999). A kinetic and kinematic comparison of the grab and track starts in competitive swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 31(5), Supplement abstract 616.

33. KICKING IS NOT A SIGNIFICANT SOURCE OF PROPULSION

    Brooks, R. W., Lance, C. C. & Sawhill, J. A. (2000). The biomechanical interaction of lift and propulsion forces during swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(5), Supplement abstract 910.

34. SOME RELAY START FORMS ARE BETTER THAN OTHERS

    McLean, S. P., Vint, P. F., Beckett, K. D., Hinrichs, R. N., & Holthe, M. J. (2000). Kinematics of step-through swimming starts. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(5), Supplement abstract 911.

35. RESTRICTING STEP LENGTH IN RELAY STARTS AFFECTS PERFORMANCE

    Holthe, M. J., & McLean, S. P. (2000). Effect of step-length in the step-through swimming relay start. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(5), Supplement abstract 1049.

36. ENTRY ANGLE AFFECTS RELAY STARTS BUT TYPE OF START DOES NOT

    Kovi, D. L., Martens, D. W., & Morin, G. E. (2000). The swimming relay start: A kinematic comparison of two techniques. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(5), Supplement abstract 1051.

37. SHOULDER STRENGTH ASSOCIATED WITH SPRINT SWIMMING

    Hsu, K. M., & Tsu, T. G. (2000). The relationships among shoulder isokinetic strength, swimming speed, and propulsive power in front crawl swimming. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(5), Supplement abstract 1766.

38. FREESTYLE STROKES VARY DEPENDING UPON ARM AND STROKE LENGTH

    Brooks, R. W., Lane, C. C., & Rix, J. D. (2001). The interrelationship of force-velocity dynamics and propulsion impulse in freestyle swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 33(5), Supplement abstract 574.

39. NO PLACE FOR CATCH-UP CRAWL PATTERNS IN ELITE SWIMMING

    Millet, G. P., Chollet, D., Chalies, S., & Chatard, J. C. (2002). Coordination in front crawl in elite triathletes and elite swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 23, 99-104.

40. PROPELLING EFFICIENCY IS MOST IMPORTANT FOR SWIMMING

    D'Acquisto, L. J., & Berry, J. E. (2003). Relationship between estimated propelling efficiency, peak aerobic power, and swimming performance in trained male swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 34(5), Supplement abstract 193.

41. ENERGY DEMANDS OF EACH COMPETITIVE SWIMMING STROKE DIFFER

    White, J. C., & Stager, J. McC. (2004). The relationship between drag forces and velocity for the four competitive swimming strokes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36(5), Supplement abstract 93.

42. BETTER SWIMMERS HAVE MORE EFFICIENT TECHNIQUES

    D'Acquisto, L. J., Berry, J., Boggs, G., & Mattern, P. (2004). Swimming performance and velocity at OBLA are linked to propelling efficiency. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36(5), Supplement abstract 1409.

43. BETTER KICKING AND LESS SLOWING ARE NEEDED TO IMPROVE BREASTSTROKE SWIMMING

    Yoshimura, Y., Tanaka, T., Oishi, K., Yasukawa, M., & Funato, K. (2005). Breaststroke skills in male elite swimmers detected by means of a speed meter. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(5), Supplement abstract 422.

44. PULL FIRST WITH THE DEEP ARM WHEN COMING OUT OF A TURN

    Larsen, B., & Hinrichs, R. N. (2005). Transition from the glide phase to free swimming following a freestyle flip turn: Which arm pulls first? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(5), Supplement abstract 609.

45. DIVE SHALLOW FOR 50-M EVENTS

    Wright, B. V., White, J. C., Parry, T. E., Willmott, A. P., Nelson, C. S., Cornett, A. C., & Stager, J. M. (2005). Maximum hand, head, knee, and toe depths during the competitive swimming start differ with race distance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 37(5), Supplement abstract 624.

46. KICKING EFFECTIVENESS IS DETERMINED BY HIP AND KNEE ACTIONS

    Mookerjee, S., & Weller, B. R. (2006). Lower extremity isokinetic strength and flexibility impacts flutter kicking performance in swimmers. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 38(5), Supplement abstract 1616.

47. END OF BUTTERFLY STROKE IS CRITICAL FOR GOOD BUTTERFLY SWIMMING

    Yoshimura, Y., Tanaka, T., Oishi, K., Yasukawa, M., & Matsuo, A. (2007). Characteristics of butterfly stroking skill in elite swimmers detected by means of a speed meter. ACSM Annual Meeting New Orleans, Presentation Number 1432.

48. PATTERNS OF FORCE APPLICATION IN CRAWL STROKING DIFFER BUT THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY NEED TO BE INTERPRETED CAUTIOUSLY

    Seifert, L., Chollet, D., & Rouard, A. (2007). Swimming constraints and arm coordination. Human Movement Science, 26, 68-86.

49. SPRINT RACE TECHNIQUES CHANGE AS THE EVENT PROGRESSES

    Seifert, L., Chollet, D., & Rouard, A. (2007). Siefert, L., Chollet, D., & Chatard, J. C. (2007). Changes during a 100-m front crawl: Effects of performance level and gender. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1784-1793.

50. A BREATHING APPARATUS CAUSES CHANGES IN CRAWL STROKE TECHNIQUE

    Strumbelj, B. (2007). Breathing frequency patterns during submaximal and maximal front crawl swim with and without a respiratory valve. Kinesiology, 39, 165-171.

51. A DOLPHIN KICK ENHANCES THE BREASTSTROKE PULLOUT

    McLean, S. P., Havriluk, R., & Brandt, S. (2008). Effect of adding a dolphin kick to a breaststroke pullout. ACSM 55th Annual Meeting Indianapolis, Presentation Number 2098.

52. BREATHING IS DISRUPTIVE IN FREESTYLE

    Lee, J., Mellifont, R., Winstanley, J., & Burkett, B. (2008). Body roll in simulated freestyle swimming. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 29, 569-573.

53. CATCH-UP STROKING SHOULD BE CONSIDERED A TECHNIQUE ERROR

    Schnitzle, C., Seifert, L., Ernwein, V., & Chollet, D. (2008). Arm coordination adaptations assessment in swimming. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 29, 480-487.

54. SIDE GRIP BETTER THAN FRONT GRIP FOR STARTS

    Hinrichs, R. N., Vint, P. F., McLean, S. P., Riewald, S. A., & Mason, R. K. (2009). Comparison of swim starts using side handle and front handle grip techniques. ACSM 56th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington. Presentation Number 2556.

55. STROKE RATE INCREASES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH SHORTENED DURATION OF THE UNDERWATER PROPULSIVE PHASE (I.E., GREATER ACCELERATION)

    Barden, J. M., Kell, R. T., & Kobsar, D. (2009). Intra-cyclic stroke parameter changes associated with increased speed in competitive front-crawl swimming. ACSM 56th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington. Presentation Number 2571.

56. VIDEO ANALYSIS HAS DIFFICULTIES WHEN RECONSTRUCTING IMAGES

    Reis, A., Reis, V. M., Silva, A. J., Figueira, B., Louro, H., Marinho, D. A., & Barbosa, T. M. (2009). Comparison of 2d kinematical images reconstruction in breaststroke swimming: Dual media versus separated recording plans. ACSM 56th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington. Presentation Number 2763.

57. SLIGHTLY SPREAD FINGERS ON A HAND HELD AT 90º TO THE LINE OF INTENDED FORCE PRODUCTION PRODUCES THE MOST FORCE

    Marinho, D. A., Barbosa, T. M., Reis, V. M., Vilas-Boas, J. P., Alves, F. B., Kjendlie, P. L., Rouboa, A. I., & Silva, A. J. (2009). The effect of finger spread on the propulsive force production in swimming. ACSM 56th Annual Meeting, Seattle, Washington. Presentation Number 599.

58. HIGHER PROGRESSION VELOCITY WITHIN THE BREASTSTROKE CYCLE IS A FEATURE OF ELITE SPECIALIST SWIMMERS

    Leblanc, H., Seifert, L., Tourny-Chollet, C., & Chollet, D. (2007). Intra-cyclic distance per stroke phase, velocity fluctuations and acceleration time ratio of a breaststroker's hip: a comparison between elite and non-elite swimmers at different race paces. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 28(2), 140-147.

59. BUTTERFLY MIGHT NEED TO ALWAYS BE SWUM AT RACE PACE AT PRACTICE

    Chollet, D., Seifert, L., Boulesteix, L., & Carter, M. (2006). Arm to leg coordination in elite butterfly swimmers. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(4), 322-329.

60. NON-PROPULSIVE PHASE IS THE WEAK SPOT IN BREASTSTROKE SWIMMING

    Takagi, H., Sugimoto, S., Nishijima, N., & Wilson, B. (2004). Differences in stroke phases, arm-leg coordination and velocity fluctuation due to event, gender and performance level in breaststroke. Sports Biomechanics, 3, 15-27.

61. STROKE RATE IS POSSIBLY MORE IMPORTANT THAN STROKE LENGTH

    Huot-Marchand, F., Nesi, X., Sidney, M., Alberty, M., & Pelayo, P. (2005). Variations of stroking parameters associated with 200 m competitive performance improvement in top-standard front crawl swimmers. Sports Biomechanics, 4, 89-99.

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