CHAPTER 5
Cell Respiration
and Metabolism
Objectives:
1. Describe the steps of glycolysis and discuss the significance of this metabolic pathway.
2. Describe how lactic acid is formed and explain the physiological significance of this pathway.
3. Define the term gluconeogenesis and describe the Cori cycle.
4. Describe the pathway for the aerobic respiration of glucose through the steps of the Krebs cycle.
5. Explain the functional significance of the Krebs cycle in relation to the electron-transport system.
6. Describe the electron-transport system and oxidative phosphorylation.
7. Describe the role of oxygen in aerobic respiration.
8. Compare the lactic acid pathway and aerobic respiration in terms of initial substrates, final products, cellular locations, and the total number of ATP molecules produced per glucose respired.
9. Explain how glucose and glycogen can be interconverted and how the liver can secrete free glucose derived from its stored glycogen.
10. Define the terms lipolysis and b-oxidation and explain how these processes function in cellular energy production.
11. Explain how ketone bodies are formed.
12. Describe the processes of oxidative deamination and transamination of amino acids and explain how these processes can contribute to energy production.
13. Explain how carbohydrates or protein can be converted to fat in terms of the metabolic pathways involved.
14. State the preferred energy sources of different organs.
CHAPTER 6
Interactions
Between Cells and The Extracellular Environment
Objectives:
1. Describe the composition of the extracellular environment.
2. Describe diffusion and explain its physical basis.
3. Explain how nonpolar molecules, inorganic ions, and water can diffuse trough a cell membrane.
4. State the factors that influence the rate of diffusion through cell membranes.
5. Define the term osmosis and describe the conditions required for osmosis to occur.
6. Define the terms osmolality and osmotic pressure and explain how these factors relate to osmosis.
7. Define the term tonicity and distinguish between isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.
8. Describe the characteristics of carrier-mediated transport.
9. Describe the facilitated diffusion of glucose through cell membranes and give examples of its occurrence in the body.
10. Explain what is meant by active transport and describe how the Na+/K+ pumps work.
11. Explain how equilibrium potential is produced when only one ion is able to diffuse through a cell membrane.
12. Explain why the resting membrane potential is slightly different than the potassium equilibrium potential and describe the effect of the extracellular potassium concentration on the resting membrane potential.
13. Discuss the role of the Na+/K+ pumps in the maintenance of the resting membrane potential.
14. Distinguish between the different types of cell signaling.
CHAPTER 7
The Nervous
System: Neurons and Synapses
Objectives:
1. Describe the structure of a neuron and explain the functional significance of its principle regions.
2. Classify neurons on the basis of their structure and function.
3. Describe the locations and functions of the different types of supporting cells.
4. Explain what is meant by the blood-brain barrier and discuss its significance.
5. Describe the neurilemma and explain how it functions in the regeneration of cut peripheral nerve fibers.
6. Explain how a myelin sheath is formed.
7. Define depolarization, repolarization, and hyperpolarization.
8. Explain the actions of voltage-regulated Na+ and K+ channels and describe the events that occur during the production of an action potential.
9. Describe the properties of action potentials and explain the significance of the all-or-none law and the refractory periods.
10. Explain how action potentials are regenerated along myelinated and nonmyelinated axons.
11. Describe the events that occur in the interval between the electrical excitation of an axon and the release of neurotransmitter.
12. Describe the two general categories of
chemically regulated ion channels and explain how these channels operate using
nicotinic and muscarinic ACh receptors as examples.
13. Explain how ACh produces EPSPs and IPSPs, and discuss the significance of these processes.
14. Compare the characteristics of EPSPs and action potentials.
15. Compare the mechanisms that inactivate ACh with those that inactivate monoamine neurotransmitters.
16. Explain the role of cyclic AMP in the action of monoamine neurotransmitters and describe some of the actions of monoamines in the nervous system.
17. Explain the significance of the inhibitory effects of glycine and GABA in the central nervous system.
18. List some of the polypeptide neurotransmitters and explain the significance of the endogenous opioids in the nervous system.
19. Discuss the significance of nitric oxide as a neurotransmitter.
20. Explain how EPSPs and ISPSs can interact and discuss the significance of spatial and temporal summation and of presynaptic and postsynaptic inhibition.
21. Describe the nature of long-term
potentiation and discuss its significance.
CHAPTER 12
Muscle
Objectives:
1. Describe the gross and microscopic structure of skeletal muscles.
2. Describe the nature of a muscle twitch and explain how summation and tetanus are produced.
3. Distinguish among isometric, isotonic, and eccentric contractions.
4. Explain how the series-elastic component affects muscle contraction.
5. Define the term motor unit and explain how motor units are used to control muscle contraction.
6. Describe the structure of myofibrils and explain how it accounts for the striated appearance of skeletal muscle fibers.
7. Explain what is meant by the sliding filament theory of contraction.
8. List the events that occur during cross-bridge cycles and describe the role of ATP in muscle contraction.
9. Explain how tropomyosin and troponin control muscle contraction and relaxation, and describe the role of Ca2+ and the sarcoplasmic reticulum in excitation-contraction coupling.
10. Describe the structure and functions of muscle spindles and explain the mechanisms involved in a stretch reflex.
11. Describe the function of Golgi tendon organs and explain why a slow, gradual muscle stretch could avoid the spasm that may result from a rapid stretch.
12. Explain what is meant by reciprocal innervation and describe the neural pathways involved in a crossed-extensor reflex.
13. Explain the significance of gamma motoneurons in the neural control of muscle contraction and in the maintenance of muscle tone.
14. Describe the neural pathways involved in the pyramidal and extrapyramidal systems.
15. Explain the significance of the maximal oxygen uptake and describe the function of phosphocreatine in muscles.
16. Explain how slow-twitch, fast-twitch, and intermediate fibers differ in structure and function.
17. Describe skeletal muscle metabolism during exercise, and explain how muscles fatigue and how muscle fibers change as a result of physical training.
18. Compare cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle in terms of structure and physiology.
19. Describe the structure of smooth muscle and explain how its contraction is regulated.
CHAPTER 13
Heart and
Circulation
Objectives:
1. Describe the general functions and major components of the circulatory system.
2. Describe the composition of blood plasma and the physical characteristics and functions of the formed elements of the blood.
3. Identify the chemical regulators of blood cell production and describe the process of erythropoiesis.
4. Describe the ABO system of red blood cell antigens and explain the significance of the blood types.
5. Explain how a blood clot is formed and how it is ultimately destroyed.
6. Explain how the acid-base balance of blood is affected by carbon dioxide and bicarbonate, and describe the roles of the lungs and kidneys in maintaining acid-base balance.
7. Describe the path of the blood through the heart and the function of the atrioventricular and semilunar valves.
8. Describe the structures and pathways of the pulmonary and systemic circulations.
9. Describe the structures and pathways of electrical impulse conduction in the heart.
10. Describe the electrical activity in the sinoatrial node and explain why this tissue functions as the heart's normal pacemaker.
11. Relate the time involved in the production of an action potential to the time involved in the contraction of myocardial cells and explain the significance of this relationship.
12. Describe the pressure changes that occur in the ventricles during the cardiac cycle and relate these changes to the action of the valves and the flow of blood.
13. Explain the origin of the heart sounds and state when in the cardiac cycle these sounds are produced.
14. Explain how electrocardiogram waves are produced and relate these waves to other events in the cardiac cycle.
15. Compare the structure of an artery and vein, and explain how the structure of each type of vessel relates to its function.
16. Describe the structure of capillaries and explain the physiological significance of this structure.
17. Explain how atherosclerosis may develop and comment on the significance of this condition.
18. Define ischemia and discuss the possible causes of myocardial ischemia.
19. Describe some common arrhythmias that can be detected with an ECG.
20. Describe the components and functions of the lymphatic system.
CHAPTER 14
Cardiac Output,
Blood Flow and Blood Pressure
Objectives:
1. Define cardiac output and explain how it is calculated.
2. Explain how autonomic nerves regulate cardiac rare and the strength of ventricular contraction.
3 Explain the intrinsic regulation of stroke volume (the Frank-Starling Law of the Heart).
4. List the factors that affect the venous return of blood to the heart.
5. Explain how interstitial fluid is formed and how it is returned to the capillary blood.
6. Describe the conditions that may lead to edema.
7. Explain how antiduretic hormone helps to regulate blood volume, plasma osmolality, and blood pressure.
8. Explain the role of aldosterone in the regulation of blood volume and blood pressure.
9. Describe the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and discuss its significance in cardiovascular regulation.
10. Use Poiseuille's law to explain how blood flow is regulated.
11. Define total peripheral resistance and explain how vascular resistance is regulated by extrinsic control mechanisms.
12. describe the functions of nitric oxide and endothelin-l in the paracrine regulation of blood flow.
13. Describe the intrinsic mechanisms involved in the autoregulation of blood flow.
14. Explain the mechanisms by which blood flow to the heart and skeletal muscles is regulated.
15. Describe the changes that occur in the cardiac output and distribution of blood flow during exercise.
16. Describe the cutaneous circulation and explain how circulation in the skin is regulated.
17. List the factors that regulate the arterial blood pressure.
18. Describe the baroreceptor reflex and explain its significance in blood pressure regulation.
19. Explain how the sounds of Korotkoff are produced and how these sounds are used to measure blood pressure.
20. Explain how the pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure are calculated and discuss the significance of these measurements.
21. Explain the mechanisms that contribute to and that help compensate for the conditions of hypertension, circulatory shock, and congestive heart failure.
CHAPTER 16
Respiratory
Physiology
Objectives:
1. Describe the functions of the respiratory system, distinguish between the conducting and respiratory zone structures, and discuss the significance of the thoracic membranes.
2. Explain how the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures vary during ventilation and relate these pressure changes to Boyle's law.
3. Define the terms compliance and elasticity, and explain how these lung properties affect ventilation.
4. Discuss the significance of surface tension in lung mechanics, explain how the law of Laplace applies to lung function, and describe the role of pulmonary surfactant.
5. Explain how inspiration and expiration are accomplished in unforced breathing and describe the accessory respiratory muscles used in forced breathing.
6. Define the various lung volumes and capacities that can be measured by spirometry and explain how obstructive diseases can be detected by the FEV, test.
7. Describe the nature of asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, and pulmonary fibrosis.
8. Explain Dalton's law and illustrate how the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of gases is calculated.
9. Explain Henry's law, describe how blood PO2 and PCO2 are measured, and discuss the clinical significance of these measurements.
10. Describe the roles of the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebral cortex in the regulation of breathing.
11. Explain why changes in the PCO2 pH of blood, rather than in its oxygen content, serve as the primary stimuli in the control of breathing.
12. Explain how chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata and the peripheral chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid bodies respond to changes in PCO2, pH, and PO2.
13. Describe the Hering-Breuer reflex and explain its significance.
14. Describe the different forms of hemoglobin and discuss the significance of these different forms.
15. Describe the loading and unloading reactions and explain how the extent of these reactions is influenced by the PO2 and affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen.
16. Describe the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve, discuss the significance of its shape, and demonstrate how the curve is used to derive the percent unloading of oxygen.
17. Explain how oxygen transport is influenced by changes in blood pH and temperature, and explain the effect and physiological significance of 2,3-DPG on oxygen transport.
18. List the different forms in which carbon dioxide is carried by the blood, and explain the chloride shift in the tissues and the reverse chloride shift in the lungs.
19. Explain how carbon dioxide affects blood pH, and how hypoventilation and hyperventilation affect acid-base balance.
20. Describe the hyperpnea of exercise and explain how the anaerobic threshold is affected by endurance training.
21. Explain the respiratory adjustments to life at a high altitude.
CHAPTER 17
Physiology of the
Kidneys
Objectives:
1. Describe the different regions of the nephron tubules and the location of the tubules in the kidney.
2. Describe the structural and functional relationships between the nephron tubules and their associated blood vessels.
3. Describe the composition of glomerular ultrafiltrate and explain how it is produced.
4. Explain how the proximal convoluted tubule reabsorbs salt and water.
5. Describe active transport and osmosis in the loop of Henle and explain how these processes produce a countercurrent multiplier system.
6. Explain how the vasa recta function in countercurrent exchange.
7. Describe the role of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in regulating the final urine volume.
8. Describe the mechanisms of glucose reabsorption
and define the terms transport maximum and renal plasma threshold.
9. Define the term renal plasma clearance and explain why the clearance of inulin is equal to the glomerular filtration rate.
10. Explain how the clearance of different molecules is determined and how the processes of reabsorption and secretion affect the clearance measurement.
11. Describe the mechanism of Na+ reabsorpiton in the distal tubule and explain why this reabsorption occurs together with the secretion of K+.
12. Describe the effects of aldosterone on the cortical portion of the collecting duct and explain how aldosterone secretion is regulated.
13. Explain how activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system results in the stimulation of aldosterone secretion.
14. Explain how the interaction between plasma K+ and H+ concentrations affects the tubular secretion of these ions.
15. Describe the role of the kidneys in the regulation of acid-base balance.
16. Describe the different mechanisms by which
substances can act as diuretics and explain why some diuretics cause excessive
loss of K+.
CHAPTER 19
Regulation of
Metabolism
Objectives:
1. Identify factors that influence the metabolic rate and explain the significance of the basal metabolic rate.
2. Distinguish between the caloric and
anabolic requirements for food and define the terms essential amino acids and
essential fatty acids.
3. Distinguish between fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins and describe some of the functions of different vitamins.
4. Define the terms energy reserves and circulating energy substrates and explain how these sources of energy interact during anabolism and catabolism.
5. Describe the regulation of eating and discuss the endocrine control of metabolism in general terms.
6. Describe the regulation of adipocyte development and the roles of adipocytes in the regulation of hunger and tissue responsiveness to insulin.
7. Describe the actions of insulin and glucagon, and explain how the secretion of these hormones is regulated.
8. Explain how insulin and glucagon regulate metabolism during feeding and fasting.
9. Describe the symptoms of type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus and explain how these conditions are produced.
10. Describe the metabolic effects of epinephrine and the glucocorticoids.
11. Describe the effects of thyroxine on cell respiration and explain the relationship between thyroxine levels and the basal metabolic rate.
12. Describe the symptoms of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, and explain how these conditions are produced.
13. Describe the metabolic effects of growth hormone and explain why growth hormone and thyroxine are needed for proper body growth.
14. Describe the actions of parathyroid hormone, l, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 , and calcitonin, and explain how the secretion of these hormones is regulated.
15. Describe how 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 is produced and explain why this compound is needed to prevent osteomalacia and rickets.